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IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


I.I 


11.25 


IA£M2.8     12.5 
1^  1^    1122 

lU     III 

Mi.    ^ 
WUU 

1.4    11.6 


6" 


Photographic 

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Collection  de 
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10X 

14X 

18X 

22X 

26X 

30X 

E 

Um^mi 

12X 

16X 

20X 

24X 

28X 

32X 

iriiimiiMigiffiiiiiiiiwt'iiiiM 


tails 

du 
Ddifier 

une 
mage 


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The  last  recorded  frame  on  each  microfiche 
shall  contain  the  symbol  -^>  (meaning  "CON- 
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Library  of  Congress 
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conformity  avec  les  conditions  du  contrat  de 
fllmago. 

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papier  est  ImprlmAe  sont  filmAs  en  commenpant 
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dernlAra  page  qui  comporte  una  empreinte 
d'Imprassion  ou  d'illustration,  soit  par  le  second 
plat,  selon  le  cas.  Tous  les  autres  exemplaires 
orlginaux  sont  fllmte  en  commen^ant  par  la 
premiere  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'Imprassion  ou  d'illustration  et  en  terminant  par 
la  dernlAre  page  qui  comporte  une  telle 
empreinte. 

Un  des  symboles  suivants  apparaftra  sur  la 
dernlAra  Image  de  cheque  microfiche,  selon  le 
cas:  le  symbole  -^>  signifie  "A  SUIVRE",  le 
symbole  V  signifie  "FIN". 

Les  cartes,  planches,  tableaux,  etc.,  peuvent  Atre 
filmte  d  des  taux  de  reduction  diff^rents. 
Lorsque  le  document  est  trop  grand  pour  Atre 
reproduit  en  un  seul  cllchA,  11  est  film6  d  partir 
de  I'angle  supArleur  gauche,  de  gauche  d  droite, 
et  da  haut  en  baa,  en  prenant  le  nombre 
d'Images  nteessaire.  Les  diagrammes  suivants 
illustrant  la  mAthode. 


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HISTORY    -,„ 

or  THB 

RESOLUTIONS   IN   EVROPI^ 

THE  ROATAlf  EMPIBB 

nr  THB  waar, 
TUX  TBH  GONOBIBMI  OP  TDDniA. 


rry^fT", 


VBOM  TBB  rBBHOH  Of  / 

CHRISTOPHER    WILLIAM 'kOCH. 
BY  ANDRBW  CUCBTOir.      ^iwafoin 

wira  A  COB Timr  ATioB  to  rum  vbab  1811, 
'  BY  M.  SCHCBLL. 


BBTMBBABSt 

BT  AV  AMBBICAW  BDITOB. 


A  IKBTOH  or  *HB  IiAVB 

m  nUUfCK.  BBLOIDM.  POLAND.  AHD  CaOBCI. 


■imuLnmi. 


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YOL.    I. 


FOBUBBID  ST  BDWni  BDirr. 


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Publiahe 
Authorli 
Life  of  I 


lotroduci 


EnteradMCOidhstottie  Aetof  CongMM,  ia  the  ycur  18U,  by  O-  F. 
RobiiHMi  ft  Co.,  in  no  Clorek^  OiBce  of  ttie  Dutiict  Cowt  of  Coaii. 


i  :.ia.. 


X  77 


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From  the 
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Bt  Cowt  of  Cobb. 


9 


CONTENTS  OP  VOLUME  I. 

• It 

Introduction Chapx«  I. 

17 

Pmm  A    T       .  Chaptbb  II.— Period  I. 

^"■.2^"Sit„«:?a5*r,-„-s-j- ■ « 

'-«'-— orjs^;:;'-„"ri„. ^ 

'».p^<*^vSr.Ti~-rp"'^,3«. „. 

From  Pom  II«.j^   iSJI^'™'  VI.-P,„«  y. 

"' • • IW 

Pro-  *^  *-L,  ChA»™«  Vn.-.p«.,OB  VI 

'      ?..... ,.,,m 


CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  II. 

Pige. 
Chaptbk  Vin — Pebiod  VII. 
I  IkA  PMce  of  Wettphalia  to  that  of  Utrecht,  A.  D.  1«4S->1718.     9 

CHAPTiim  IX.— Period  VIII. 
Fwm  A«  Pause  of  Utrecht  to  tiie  French  Revolution,  A.  D.  1718—1789,  57 

,  Chapter  X Period  IX. 

Ac  commencement  of  the  French  ReTolution,  to  the 
dBwnM  of  Buontiwrte,  A.  D.  1789— 1815,. .  > 140 

Chapter  XI. 
TIm  MOituj  Predominance  of  Fnnce,  under  the  away  of  Napo- 

liMBBw>in|>arte,A.D.  1802— 1810 IM 

Chapter  XII. 
I  Decline  and  Downftll  of  the  Empire  of  finonqmrte,  A.  D. 
imo— 1815 858 

Appbrdix. 
I  tlw  Mcond  Reetoration  of  the  Bourbons,  A.  D.  1815,  to  the 

Frwch  Rerolntion  iB  July.  1880. ..«. 808 

BOTOliitioaLaBelKittm,A.D.  1880, U8 

BMdUioB&Polaud.A.fi.lSao 9» 

i^5M6ti  b  OreMd,  A.  D.  1821— 1827, 841 

WarbebreenRuMiau^Turitn.A.  D.  1828aDdl889, 881 

Ei^giua,  ftom  A.  D:  in8,m  file  paMihg  of  the  Reibim  Bill  in  1882.  885 

NMi^* ....... ii 877 


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PUBLISHER'S    NOTICE. 


Thb  Publither  of  the  present  edition  of  Kooh's  Revolutions,  hu 
selected  the  work  for  publication  on  accqunt  of  the-  very  high  reputation 
which  it  has  in  Europe,  and  its  general  adoption  there  in  Literal  Insti- 
tutions, as  the  outline  of  instruction  in  the  portion  of  Hiatoiy  which  it 
embraces.  Its  high  merit  would  no  doubt  have  obtained  for  it  an  eariier 
reprint  from  the  American  press,  but  for  the  errors  and  gallicisms  with 
which  the  English  translation  abounds.  These  defects,  it  is  hoped,  will 
not  be  found  in  the  present  edition,  which  has  been  revised  by  a  gentle- 
man who  has  endeavored  not  only  to  correct  the  fiiults  of  language,  but 
also  to  strike  from  its  pages  all  expressions  of  principles  inconsistent 
with  the  liberal  Apiiit  of  philosphical  history.  A 'practical  acquaintance 
with  the  work  as  ja  Mamtal  of  htatruetion  in  Hittory,  has  convinced 
him  of  its  admirable  adaptation  to  this  purpose,  and  enabled  him  to  rec- 
ommend it  for  its  fidelity,  impartiality,  conciseness,  dear  argument,  en- 
lightened spirit,  and  leamfd  research-  Omitting  no  important  event,  and 
dwellinK  very  Ailly  upon  tiiioee  which  have  um  great  influence  In  pro- 
dttcing  ue  permanent  changes  which  the  civilized  worid  has  undergone  in  Uie 
last  fifteen  centuriee,  it  may  almost  claim,  he  thinks,  the  united  vlvantagei 
of  a  compendious  and  ait  ebbonte  Histoi^.  In  Aill  confidence  that  it  will 
be  found  deserving  of  iba  U^  character  it  has  sustained  abroad,  and  a  val- 
uaUe  and  fidthftd  guide  iu  rendering  the  youdi  of  our  countiv  fiuniliar  witii 
the  HistoiT  of  Modem  E\w)pe,  it  it  now  ofired  to  tho  patronage  of  tiie 
friends  of  Useful  Kmnkledne,  by 

THE  ASOEKICAN  PUBLISHER. 


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AUTHOR'S    PREFACE. 


Th«  work  hm  praMotad  to  tha  pnbUc,  ii  ■  mimmuv  of  tha  ReralutloM, 
both  ganend  ud  puticuliir,  which  bare  happanad  in  Enrapa  ainca  tha  n- 
tinction  of  dM  Romap  Enwjra  in  tha  fifth  eanhiiy.  Aa  an  alamantaiv  Book, 
it  wUl  IM  fouiid  uaAil  to  tfaoaa  who  wiah  to  hava  a  coadaa  aiMlgaiiaral  Waw 
of  ttM  aueeaaalTa  reToiatfc»a  that  hara  changad  ttia  aapaot  a  atataa  and 
Idnadpma,  ud  gi?an  Uith  to  tha  aiiating  poUev  and  aateblidiad  oidar  of  ao- 
ciahrln  modarn  timaa. 

Without  aena  praUminaijr  aemaintanca  with  tha  annala  of  thaaa  nvohi- 
iioBa,waeaiinaiaMratnd7tfMMa(or7of  our  owncountiy  to  advantaga, 
noraaprw^  tha  influanoa  which  tha  diiftrent  atataa,  tbrmad  ft^flM 
wrack  of  Oe  anciant  Roman  Empira,  reciprooaUjr  axaiciaad  on  aaoh  olhar. 
AMWaalt  ware  by  tha  gaognfriUcalpoaidon  of  thair  tanitoriaa.  by  •  eon- 
Mmitir  in  thair  rali^,  bagui^a.  and  mannan,  thaaa  alatea  oontraetad 
nMT  aitachmnti  in  Oia  tieo  of  mutual  interaata,  which  tta  prociaaa  of  dr- 
uization,  commarea,  and  induativ,  taadedmoM  and  mora  to  camant  and 
conflnn.  Manvof  thamwhomfoItunahadalaTatadtothaanmmitofpow• 
"'^,.C!''^•3r.oa^^ad  ttiairlawa,  thair  arta  and  inatitutiona,  both  ciiril 
and  miUtarr,ftr  beyond  tha  limita  of  thair  own  dcminiona.  Theeztanair* 
y  whiob  the  Romiah  hiaranshy  held  for  nearty  a  thooiand  yean  orar  tfM 
-'-  putof  tha  European  kingdoma,  ia  wdl  known  to  araiy  loader  of 

loontimiity  of  intoicouiae  and  relatiooaUp  among  1h»  powara  of  Eu- 
fl**' "^!5*  ™  "*"  "f  *"»'■«  ^>"»  tato  a  kind  of  iwMMfc»nmlB«  j 
it  gara  bMh  to  a  national  hw  and  conventional  li^ta/fonndad  o»  tk« 
agra«nent  of  treatiao,  and  tha  uai«aa  of  common  piaetka.  A  tmtM* 
emnlati<m  iVtuag  up  amoog  contempoianr  atataa.  Their  JaakNuiaow  and 
OTw  their  eompatitkma  and  diviiiona,  conUbutod  to  tha  pngiaaa  of  «^ 
nation,  and  Oa  attainment  of  that  high  atata  of  peifectkm  to  which  aH  ha- 
man  adancaa  and  Inatitutiona  hare  bean  caniad  Vy  tha  aationa  of  modem 
JEurope. 

^^^  ^'^f^^^  oonnasionB,  thia  reciprocal  influence  of  Ungdonaand 

^!!^JT^.2'!~j'^*'l***^*'»«»^«°"«f  «*••«>  *•«»<*  ■««»•  •«» 
aiperieneadlndMlaipaof  aomaiqrage8,ttiatrequintobedaTdopad  in  n 
eMmlvtow.auchaaliiBtwfaichpnftaMatobeflia  object  of  flie  pnoant 

Thoantkorhaahenranwddladhia  "View  of  the  Rarolutiona  of  tha 
Mddle Agea.*; (puMiahed In ITOO.) and aitandad or abikhad  thadMbMBt 
pariodaaoeoitfngtodreumBluicaa.  b  continuing  tUawoik  down  to  the 
pnaanttiM.heliaa  deemed  neeeaaaiT  to  conclude  at  tha  Fianch  Rot«- 

!™*!J?.^ J*?"*?'^  '•■'*■  ^  *«  V*^  •▼"«*  «•  too  »»w*  towhred 
in  uneertyatgrtoba  dearly  or  impartially  eihiUted  by  oontenpotaiywitteia.* 


*  b  Aa  adltioB  of  Itli,  flroca  which  Urn  pK-«at  trawktlon  la  made,  die 
jneMMM  h^bjw  cooliBuad  lif  tha  Edlte/,j  M.  Schra,  Awn  to  the  »th 


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CmitToriift  WtLLiAM  Koch,  equally  diatinguUhed  M  • 
lawTtr  and  a  Uarned  historian,  was  born  on  the  9tn  of  May  1737 
at  Bouxwiller,  a  small  town  in  the  seigniory  of  Lichtenberg  in 
Alsace,  which  then  belonged  to  the  Prince  of  Hesse-Darmstadt. 
His  father,  who  was  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Finaoee 
under  that  prince,  iient  him  to  an  excellent  school  in  his  nativa 
place,  where  he  receired  the  rudiments  of  his  education.  At 
the  age  of  thirteen,  he  went  to  the  Protestant  University  of 
Strasbourg,  w  here  he  prosecuted  his  studies  under  the  celebrated 
Schospflin.  Law  was  the  profession  to  which  he  was  destined ; 
but  he  showed  an  early  predilection  for  the  study  of  history, 
and  the  sciences  connected  with  it,  such  as  Diplomatics,  or  the 
art  of  deciphering  and  verifying  ancient  writs  and  chartularks, 
Genealogy,  Chronology.,  5cc.  Sch<cpflin  was  not  slow  to  appi*- 
ciate  the  rising  merit  of  his  pupil,  and  wished  to  make  him  the 
companion  of  his  labours.  He  admitted  him  to  his  friendshipt 
and  oecame  the  means  of  establishing  him  as  his  successor  m 
that  famous  political  academy,  which  his  reputation  had  formed 
at  Strasbourg,  by  attracting  to  that  city  the  youth  of  the  first 
families,  and  from  all  parts  of  Europe.  Koch  devoted  much  of 
his  time  to  the  Canon  Law,  and  soon  gave  a  prooi  of  the  pio- 
ffress  he  had  made  in  that  branch  of  study,  by  the  Academical 
Dissertation  which  he  published  in  1761,  under  the  title  of 
Commentatio  de  Collatione  dignitatwn  et  beneficionim  eeofast- 
asticorum  in  imperio  Romano- Germanico.  This  treatise  was 
a  prelude  to  his  Commentary  on  the  Pragmatic  Sanctiam, 
which  he  published  in  1789 — a  work  which  excited  an  extra- 
ordinary sensation  in  Catholic  Germany,  and  procured  the 
author  the  favourable  notice  of  such  prelates  as  wera  OMWt 
eminent  for  learning  and  piety. 

After  taking  his  academic  degree,  Koch  repaired  to  Pa'riB  in 
1762,  where  he  staid  a  year ;  honoured  with  the  society  of  the 
most  distinguished  literati  in  the  capital,  and  frequenting  tbr 
Royal  Library*  wholly  occupied  in  those  researches  which  pre- 
pared him  for  the  learned  labours  in  which  he  afterwards  en- 
gaged. On  his  return  to  Strasbourg,  he  wrote  the  continua- 
tion of  the  Hittoria  Zaringo-Badensis,  of  which  the  first  volana 
only  was  drawn  up  by  Schoepflin.  All  the  others  are  entiialy 
Uie  work  of  Koch,  though  they  bear  the  name  of  the  master 
who  had  charged  him  with  the  execution  of  this  task.  Schflepfiia 
bequeathed  to  the  city  cf  Strasbourg,  in  1766,  his  valuable 

VOL.  I.  2 


14 


un  or  KOCH. 


libiary  and  hii  cabinet  of  aniiques,  on  condiuon  ihat  Koch 
should  be  appointed  keeper;  which  he  was,  in  effect,  on  the 
death  of  the  testator  in  1771.  He  obtained,  at  the  same  time, 
the  title  of  Professor,  which  authorized  him  to  deliver  lectures; 
for  the  chair  of  Scheepflin  passed,  according  to  the  statutes  of 
tho  University,  to  another  professor,— a  man  of  merit  but  mca- 
pableof  supplying  his  place  as  an  instructor  of  youth  m  the 
•tfidy  of  the  political  sciences.  The  pupils  of  Schoepflin  were 
thus  transferred  to  Koch,  who  became  the  head  ...  that  diplo- 
matic school,  which,  for  sixty  years,  gave  to  the  pubhc  so  great 
a  number  of  ministers  and  statesmen. 

In  1779  the  Government  of  Hanover  offered  him  the  chair  ot 
public  German  Law  in  the  University  of  GoUingen,  which  he 
declined.  Next  year  the  Emperor  Josepeh  II.,  who  knew  well 
how  to  distinguish  merit,  complimented  him  wiih  the  dignity 
of  Knight  of  the  Empire,  an  intermediate  title  between  that  o 
baron  and  the  simple  rank  of  noblesse.  About  the  same  period 
he  obtained  the  chair  of  Public  Law  at  Strasbourg,  which  he 
held  until  that  University  was  suppressed  at  the  French  Kevolu- 
tion.  Towards  the  end  of  1789,  the  Protestants  of  Alsace  seat 
him  as  their  envoy  to  Paris,  to  solicit  from  the  King  and  the 
Constitutional  Assembly,  the  maintenance  of  their  civil  and  re- 
ligiuus  rights,  according  to  the  faith  of  former  treaties.  He 
aucceeded  in  obtaining  for  them  the  decree  of  the  17th  ol 
August  1790,  which  sanctioned  these  rights,  and  declared  that 
the  ecclesiastical  beneaces  of  the  Protestants  were  not  included 
among  those  which  the  decree  of  the  1st  of  November  prece- 
ding, had  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  nation.  The  former 
decree  was  mpreover  extended  and  explained  by  an  act,  bearing 
date  December  1st  1790.     Both  of  these  were  approved  and 

ratified  by  the  King.  ,  ,     -n      t  »•      u  j 

•  M«antune,  the  terrors  and  turbulence  of  the  Revolution  had 
dispersed  from  Strasbourg  that  brilliant  assemblage  «f  youth, 
which  the  reputation  of  the  professors,  and  the  natural  beauties 
of  the  place,  had  attracted  from  all  quarters.  These  disastrous 
•rcnts  interrupted  the  career  of  Koch,  at  a  time  when  he  was 
eapable  of  rendering  the  most  important  services  to  his  country. 
From  that  moment  he  devoted  himself  to  public  affairs.  Being 
appointed  a  Member  of  the  first  Legislative  Assembly,  he  op- 
OMed  the  faction  which  convulsed  the  nation,  and  ultimately 
luhwrted  the  throne.  When  President  of  the  Committee  of 
that  Assembly,  he  exerted  himsell  for  the  maintenance  of  peace ; 
•ad.  in  a  Report  which  he  made  in  1792,  he  foretold  the  cala 
mities  which  would  overwhelm  France,  if  war  should  be 
deebirad  against  Auatria.     The  republican  faction,  by  their 


eltmc 

20th 

so  fai 

of  Ai 

sufiic 

ingsl 

of  hi 

reaso 

provi 

of  th 

langi 

pect 

of  th 

point 

their 

his  p 

consi 

the  s 

Het 

unwi 

of  pi 

whic 

thes( 

more 

a  mj 

in  tl 

to  til 

the 

He  I 

cord 

testi 

peril 

Tl 

ofti 

perr 

self 

was 

he  1 

self 

the 

con 

ofS 

of  I 

firoi 

feU 


'^ViiYiiJiiiiii' 


dition  that  Kocb 
in  eflfect,  on  the 
at  the  same  time, 
>  deliver  lectures ; 
to  the  statutes  of 
of  merit  but  inca- 
r  of  youth  in  the 
>f  ScWpflin  were 
ead  «.!"  that  diplo- 
he  public  so  grc-at 

d  him  the  chair  of 
Itingen,  which  he 
I.,  who  knew  well 
I  wiih  the  dignity 
lie  between  that  o 
ut  the  same  period 
asbourg,  which  he 
he  French  Revolu- 
nnts  of  Alsace  sent 

the  King  and  the 
'  their  civil  and  re- 
•mer  treaties.  He 
ree  of  the  17th  of 
,  and  declared  that 

were  not  included 
f  November  prece- 
,tion.  The  former 
I  by  an  act,  bearing 
vere  approved  ana 

the  Be  volution  had 
semblage  of  youth, 
he  natural  beauties 
These  disastrous 
time  when  he  was 
vices  to  his  country. 
blic  affairs.  Being 
e  Assembly,  he  op- 
ion,  and  ultimately 
r  the  Committee  of 
lintenance  of  peace ; 
e  foretold  the  cala 
if  war  should  bo 
in  faction,  by  their 


Un   OF    KOCB.  •• 

« 

eUmours,  silencedjhe  remonstruces  of  Koch,  when,  on  th« 
20th  of  April,  he  spoke  in  opposition  to  a  measure  which  pwTed 
so  fatal  to  France.    An  official  letter  which  he  addresMd,  lUOi 
of  August,  to  the  constituted  authorities  of  the  Lower  Rhine, 
sufficiently  expressed  the  horro*  with  which  that  day's  proceed- 
ings had  inspired  him.     He  procured,  moreover,  the  concurrence 
of  his  fellow-citizens  in  a  resistance,  vnhich  he  had-then  torn 
reason  to  hope  would  be  made  a  common  cause  by  the  other 
provinces.    This  letter  drew  dovim  upon  him  tha  persecuuon 
of  the  ruling  party.    He  was  immured  in  a  prison,  where  he 
languished  for  eleven  months,  and  from  which  he  had  no  pro8< 
pect  of  escape,  except  to  mount  the  scaffold.     The  revoluUon 
of  the  9th  Thermidor  restored  him  to  liberty,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed,  by  the  voice  of  his  fellow-citizens,  to  the  Directory  of 
their  provincial  department.    He  endeavoured  by  all  means  m 
his  power  to  defeat  the  measures  that  were  taken  to  mjure  h» 
constituents;  and  had  influence  enough,  it- is  said,  to  prevent 
the  sale  of  the  funds  belonging  to  manufactories  and  hospitals. 
He  then  resumed  with  pleasure  those  functions  which  he  had 
unwillingly  accepted;  in  1795,  he  recommenced  his  proiefsorahip 
of  public°law,  and  returned  with  new  zeal  to  his  literary  lajours, 
which  had  been  too  long  interrupted.     Six  years  he  spent  m 
these  useful  occupations;  from  which,  however,  he  was  once 
more  detached  by  a  decree  of  the  Senate,  which  nominated  him 
a  member  of  the  Tribunal.    This  nomination  Koch  accepted, 
in  the  hope  of  being  useful  to  his  Protestant  countrymen,  and 
to  the  city  of  Strasbourg,  in  obtaining  the  re-establishment  of 
the  reformed  religion,  and  its  restoration  m    the  Lniyersity. 
He  did,  in  effect,  exert  himself  much  in  behalf  oj  religion,  a©- 
cording  to  the  confession  of  Augsburg,  as  well  as  of  the  no- 
testant  Academy  at  Strasboi'rj,  which  was  suppressed  at  ttus 

*The  Tribunal  having  been  suppressed,  Koch  declined  all  pkeet 
of  trust  or  honour  which  were  offered  him ;  and  only  requested 
permission  to  retire,  that  he  might  have  a  short  interralfor  hin- 
self  between  business  and  the  grave.  A  pension  of  3000  franM 
was  granted  him,  without  any  solicitation  on  his  part.  In  ISm, 
he  returned  ta  Strasbourg,  where  he  continued  to  derote  toa- 
self  to  letters,  and  in  administering  to  the  public  good.  AboM 
the  end  of  1810,  the  Grand-mister  of  the  University  of  IfraiMl 
conferred  on  him  the  title  of  Hciorary  Rector  of  the  Academy 
of  Strasbourg.  His  health,  which  had  been  prolonged  by  a  lift 
of  great  temperance  and  regularity  and  the  peace  which  resBltg 
from  a  good  conscience,  became  disordered  m  1812,  *««»*« 
fell  into  a  state  of  languor,  which  terminated  hu  hfe  on  fho  86th 


•^ 


IJP" 


It 


ura  «r  KocB. 


of  October  1813.  His  eoUeagaes,  the  profeison  of  Strasbourg, 
•reeted  to  his  memory  a  monument  of  white  marble  in  the 
ckQico  of  St  Thomas,  near  those  of  Schcepflin  and  Oberlin ; 
which  was  execnted  by  M.  Ohnmacht,  an  eminent  sculptor  in 
Strasboarg.  One  of  his  biographers  has  pronounced  the  fol- 
lowing eulogium  on  Koch :— "  A  noble  regard  for  justice  and 
trudi,  a  penetration  beyond  common,  a  diligence  unrivalled  in 
lliatorical  researches,  a  remarkable  talent  in  arranging  and  illus- 
tntixig  his  subject,  an  incorruptible  integrity  of  principle,  and 
vnclouded  serenity  of  mind,  with  a  zealous  desire  of  rendering 
hia  researches,  his  information  and  activity,  useful  to  his  species 
—these  were  the  prominent  features  of  the  mind  and  character 
of  this  amiable  man."  In  addition  to  this,  it  has  been  remarked, 
that  although  Professor  Koch  had  not  the  ert  of  a  graceful  or 
oven  a  fluent  elocution,  no  man  ever  possessed  in  a  higher  de- 
me  the  talents  and  qualifications  of  a  public  instructor.  Like 
Soetates,  he  had  a  manner  peculiar  to  himself.  He  was  not  so 
much  a  teacher  of  sciences,  as  of  the  means  of  acquirng  them. 
Ha  could  inspire  his  scholars  with  a  taste  for  labour,  and  knew 
hmr  to  call  forth  their  several  powers  and  dispositions.  Though 
•  Hum  of  the  most  domestic  habits,  and  a  lover  of  children,  Koch 
never  married. 

Two  lives  of  this  celebrated  professor  have  been  written  by 
fateigners.     The  one  is  by  M.  SchweighsBUser  JKnior,  a  profes- 
aor  at  Strasbourg ;  and  the  other  is  prefixed  to  the  new  edition 
of  the  Histoire^det  Traitls  de  Paix,  by  M.  Schoell,  the  editor 
and  continuator  of  several  of  our  author's  works.     This  latter 
liographer  has  accompanied  his  sketch  with  a  descriptive  cata- 
kgae  of  all  Koch's  works,  the  principal  of  which  are  the  fol- 
lowing : — 1.   Tables  Genealogiques  des  Maisovs  Smireraines  du 
MUi  et  de  rOuest  de  VEurope.    2.  Sanctio  Pragmatica  Ger- 
timnorum  illuttrata.    3.  Abrigt  de  I'Histmre  des  Traitis  de 
Pmix  entre  les  Puissances  de  VEurope.    A  new  edition  of  this 
work  appeared  in  1818,  enlarged  and  continued  by  M.  Schall 
down  to  the  Congress  of  Vienna  and  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  1816. 
4.  Table  des  Traitts  entre  la  Franee  et  Us  Puissances  Etran- 
gtret,  depuis  la  Paix  de  Westphalie,  4-c.    6.  Taileau  des  Revo- 
ArtjofU  de  VEurope,  ^c.    6.  Tables  Genealogiques  des  Maisons 
Smtveraines  de  VEst  et  du  Nord  de  VEurope.    This  work  was 
naMished,  after  the  author's  death,  by  M.  Scho?ll.     Besides 
ttiwe,  Koch  left  various  manuscripts,  containing  memoirs  of  his 
o«rn  life ;  and  several  valuable  papers  on  ihe  ancient  ecclesias- 
tienl  history  and  literature  of  hia  native  province. 


j« 


m 


Dn  of  Strasbourg, 
te  marble  in  the 
Sin  and  Oberlin; 
linent  sculptor  in 
onounced  the  fol- 
'd  for  justice  and 
ince  unrivalled  in 
ranging  and  illos* 
r  of  principle,  and 
esire  of  rendering 
leful  to  his  species 
lind  and  character 
as  been  remarked, 
t  of  a  graceful  or 
sd  in  a  higher  de- 
instructor.    Like 
f.    He  was  not  so 
of  acquirng  them, 
labour,  and  knew 
ositions.    Though 
r  of  children,  Koch 

te  been  written  by 
er  junior,  a  profes- 
to  the  new  edition 
Schaell,  the  editor 
orks.  This  latter 
a  descriptive  cata- 
which  are  the  fol- 
nts  Sotireraiius  du 

Pragmafica  Crer- 
ire  des  Traittt  i» 
new  edition  of  this 
lued  by  M.  Schoell 
jaty  of  Paris,  1816. 
Puissances  Etran- 

TtMeau  des  Revo- 
igiquts  des  Maisons 
t.    This  work  was 

Schaell.  Besides 
ling  memoirs  of  his 
e  ancient  ecclesias- 
vince. 

A.C. 


OHAPTBB  I 

IMTROPVCnOlf* 

lib  ot  o«o,  aa  •• »«  "»•»»•  1""™' "™"'  "^  ""  "^ 

own  misfortunes,  or  the  misfortunes  of  others.  Th«toowledg^ 
mom  «oor.te,«iid  more  MmpWtt  KT  "»  .        j,  j,^,„„  „ 


oairm  i. 


■ores,  whiph  ure  often  either  miaundentood  or  not  noperly  i^ 
praciated  by  tlwir  contemporariet ;  and  while  men  in^viduaUy, 
and  from  their  pwn  observation,  can  see  great  events  as  it  were 
bat  in  part,  history  embraces  the  whole  in  all  its  various  details. 
Thus,  for  example,  we  can  see  but  imperfecthr  all  Uie  bearings 
of  that  mighty  revolution  which  is  now  1793,  passing  before 
oar  eyes ;  and  it  will  remain  for  posterity  to  perceive  all  its 
Inflaence  and  eflects,  and  to  judge  of  its  diflerent  actors  with' 
ovt  feelinffs  of  irritation  or  party  spirit. 

It  is  a  feet  universally  admitted,  diat  all  ranks  and  profes* 
•ions  of  men,  find  in  history  appropriate  instruction,  ana  rules 
of  conduct,  suited  to  their  respective  conditions.  In  occupying 
the  mind  agreeably  with  sucn  a  vast  diversity  of  subjects,  it 
serves  to  form  the  judgment,  to  insnire  us  with  the  ambition  of 
riory,  and  the  love  of  virtue.  Tnose  especially  who  devote 
uemselves  to  the  study  of  politics,  or  who  are  -destioed  to  the 
■laaagement  of  public  afiairs,  will  discover  in  history  the  struc> 
toM  and  constitution  of  governments,  their  faults,  and  their 
advantages,  their  strength  and  their  weakness ;  they  will  find 
thare  the  origin  and  progress  of  empires,  die  principles  that 
hare  raised  them  to  greatness,  and  the  causes  which  have  pre- 
parod  their  fall.  The  philosopher,  and  the  man  of  letters,  will 
thtte  trace  tlw  progress  of  the  human  mind,  the  errors  and  il- 
loaions  that  nave  led  it  astray;  the  connexion  of  causes  and 
^EbctB ;  the  origin  of  arts  and  sciences,  their  changes,  and  their 
nflnence  on  society ;  as  well  as  the  innumeraUe  evils  that 
kavei  sprung  from  ignorance,  superstition  and  tyranny. 

Hiatoiry,  in  short,  avails  more  than  all  precepts  to  cure  us  of 
tlttae  mistakes  originating  in  self-love,  and  national  partiality. 
HaWfao  knows  no  other  country  than  his  own,  easily  persuades 
iiaaelf,  that  the  government,  manners,  and  opinions  of  the  lit- 
ll»e«mier  of  the  earth  which  he  inhabits,  are  uie  only  ones  con- 
aistmt  with  reason  and  propriety.  Self-love,  so  natural  to  man, 
dmishes  this  preiudicoi  and  makes  him  disdain  all  other  na- 
I,  It  is  only  by  an  extensive  acquaintance  with  history, 
bjT  familiarizing  ourselves  with  the  institutions,  customs, 
biibits  of  diflerent  ages,  and  of  diflerent  countries,  that  we 
I  to  esteem  wisdom  and  virtue,  and  to  acknowledge  ta- 
iMMa  wherever  they  exist.  Besides,  when  we  observe,  that 
dioagh  revolutions  are  continually  changing  the  face  of  king< 
imauti  nothing  essentiallv  new  ever  happens  in  the  world,  we 
•  to  be  longer  the  slaves  of  that  extravagant  admiration, 
that  credulous  astonishment  which  is  generally  the  charae> 
Mistic  of  ignorance,  or  the  mark  of  a  feeble  mind. 
Th0  most  important  attribute  of  history  is  truth,  and  in  order 


to  find 
serve 
sound 
Aet9* 

ters,  0 
puUia 
viz.  ai 
These 
from  t 
Pul 
we  cai 
ages,  I 
tings, 
docun 
The  a 
minati 
the  sa 
distinj 
scienc 

It  VI 

may  s 
ments 

1.  • 
to  tha 
These 
sible, 
and  a 
in  COD 

2. 
of  COI 
proof, 
the  tn 

3. 
to  be 
after  t 

4. 
tion  n 
dem  I 
oltoge 

6. 
memo 
ing,  01 
writer 

6. 
rior  to 


\i 


r  not  jpraprly  ap- 
men  individuaUy. 
events  as  it  wete 
its  various  details, 
y  all  the  bearings 
3,  passing  before 

0  perceive  all  its 
rent  actors  with- 

anks  and  profes* 
uction,  ana  rules 
IS.  In  occupying 
ity  of  subjects,  it 
la  the  ambition  of 
:ially  who  devote 
e  -destined  to  the 
history  the  struc* 
faults,  and  their 
IS ;  they  will  find 
he  principles  that 
i  which  have  pre< 
an  of  letters,  will 
the  errors  and  il* 
Dn  of  causes  and 
changes,  and  their 
leraUe  evils  that 
tyranny. 

}pts  to  cure  us  of 
rational  partiality. 
I,  easily  persuades 

Einions  of  the  lit- 
le  only  ones  con- 
so  natural  to  man, 
dain  all  other  na- 
nce with  history, 
itutions,  customs, 
ionntries,  that  we 
acknowledge  ta- 
we  observe,  that 
the  face  of  king- 

1  in  the  world,  we 
agant  admiration, 
lerally  the  charac- 
mind. 

iruth,  and  in  order 


W***" 


INTBOBOOTWIlt  Iv 

to  find  diia  out,  it  is  necessary  to  examine  the  niatflifals  whiek 
serve  as  the  elements  and  evidences  of  historjr*  by  the  test  of 
sound  criticism.  These  materials  are  of  two  kindb :  I.  Pvikc 
Acts  and  Records,  such  as  medals,  inscriptions,  treaties,  char- 
ters, official  papers ;  and  in  general,  ail  writings  drawn  up  at 
published  by  the  established  authorities.  II.  Frivate  vrriUrtt 
viz.  authors  of  histories,  of  chronicles,  memoirs,  letters,  tec. 
These  writers  are  either  contemporary,  or  such  as  live  remote 
from  the  times  of  which  they  write. 

Public  acts  and  official  records,  are  the  strongest  evidences 
we  can  possibly  have  of  historical  truth ;  but  as,  in  diflerent 
ages,  there  have  been  fabricators  of  pretended  acts  and  wri* 
tings,  it  becomes  necessary,  before  making  use  of  any  publie 
document,  to  be  assured  that  it  is  neither  spurious  nor  falsified. 
The  art  of  judging  of  ancient  charters  or  diplomas,  and  discri* 
minating  the  true  from  the  false,  is  called  .Diptomatiet ;  '  in 
the  same  way  as  we  give  the  name  of  Numunudia  to  the  art  of 
distinguishing  real  medals  from  counterfeit.  Both  of  thea* 
sciences  are  necessary  in  the  criticism  of  history. 

It  will  not  be  out  of  place  to  subjoin  here  some  rules  that 
may  serve  as  guides  in  the  proper  selection  of  historical  doeo- 
ments. 

1.  The  authority  of  any  chartulary  or  public  act  is  preferaUe 
to  that  of  a  private  writer,  even  though  ne  were  contemporary. 
These  public  registers  it  is  always  necessary  to  consult,  if  pos- 
sible, before  having  recourse  to  the  authority  of  private  writers; 
and  a  history  that  is  not  supported  by  such  public  vouchers  must 
in  consequence  be  very  imperfect. 

3.  When  public  acts  are  found  to  accord  with  the  testimony 
of  contemporary  authors,  there  results  a  complete  and  decisive 
proof,  the  most  satisfactory  that  can  be  desired,  for  establishing 
the  truth  of  historical  facts. 

3.  The  testimony  of  a  contemporary  author  ought  generally 
to  be  preferred  to  that  of  an  historian,  who  has  written  long 
after  the  period  in  which  the  events  have  happened. 

4.  Whenever  contemporary  writers  are  defective,  great  cau- 
tion must  be  used  with  regard  to  the  statements  of  more  mo- 
dem historians,  whose  narratives  are  often  very  inaccurate,  or 
altogether  fabulous. 

5.  The  unanimous  silence  of  contemporary  authors  on  any 
memorable  event,  is  of  itself  a  strong  presumption  for  suspect- 
ing, or  even  for  entirely  rejecting,  the  testimony  of  very  recent 
writers. 

6.  Historians  who  narrate  events  that  have  happened  ante- 
rior to  the  times  in  which  they  lived,  do  not,  properly  speaking 


■■■** 


' 


jl  OBAfTBS  I. 

ff,.„„  e-^f  except  i0  w  far  M  they  meke  M«equ«inte4 witk 

T^i^^  to  iad«  of  the  lespectiw  meriu  of  hi.ton«iy, 

J'ti;  jSerinci Tought  to  pf -"•  t'-'^^h'^  iSl 

'"ll'"^'   .  /■  11       .    Tk.t  w«  ouffht  to  distrust  an  historian 

mmmm 

^in.t  writers  who  allow  their  minds  to  be  vwped  Miae  oy 
ST^iurws  of  their  nation,  their  party,  or  their  profession ; 
?  ^  1^1,  fo  h«  imniiial,  the  historian  must  form  his  judg- 
for.  in  order  to  »»  "»P»^^^     '"J,^    ^  „g^  ^  the  acrors:  That 

meuarable  body,  f °J'l"  Sf^JJtire  „t  the  eanh  i  while 
mmtoe  the  ■"""  °' £"SJ  S,e»t  di.i.ioi..  of  the  e«lh 
politie.1  geogtuphj  ■""•""•"  »?  ^°J  „.do,n.,  .tatee,  eod  pre 

which  '«^^'^^^ZliJt2i"^>«^'r  "  ^  ""«•»' 


nmoiwotwita 


Vl 


■k«  na«eqauntdl  with 
lir  iafonnation. 
I  meriu  of  biaiorians, 
ae  beyond  otben,  it  is 
racter  of  each,  aa  well 
)  placed  at  the  time  of 

1  distrust  an  biatorian 
who  is  fond  of  fables, 
ind  amuse  bis  readers, 
inpartiality  is  an  essen- 
tirays  be  on  our  guard 
to  be  warped  aside  by 
ty,  or  their  profession ; 
in  must  form  his  judg- 
jard  to  the  actors :  That 
cem  in  the  transactions, 
Y  describe,  or  who,  wri- 
r  government,  have  had 
iblic  libraries,  ought  al- 
e  not  enjoyed  the  same 
•rians,  he  who  has  wril- 
e  than  those  who  have 
inasmuch  as  he  has  bad 
nformation,  to  avoid  all 
is  nredecessors. 


J  which  may  be  said  to 
y ;  and  among  these,  geo- 
hold  the  first  rank.  In 
I,  nor  can  any  narrative 
nces  relating  to  the  times 
happened,  as  well  as  to 
I  in  them,  be  previously 
.  It  is  obvious,  therefore, 
lology,  are  the  faithful  in- 
I  of  history. 

ithematical,  physical,  and 
)bjects  which  it  embraces, 
e  earth,  considered  as  a 
phy  has  for  its  object  to 
icture  of  the  earth  ;  while 
Brent  divisions  of  the  earth 
kingdoms,  states,  and  pro- 
1,  relatively  to  the  times  of 
ge,  and  modern  geography. 


Ancient  eeogiaphy  ia  that«which  explains  the  nnmitiTe  italc  of 
uSworirSd  Its  politic*!  division,  prior  to  tke  •«b»»"»JJ.ff 
the  Roman  Empire  in  the  west.  By  the  geography  of  the  middle 
a«8  is  understood  that  which  acquaints  us  with  the  political  . 
state  of  the  nations  who  figured  in  history  from  the  fifth  century 
to  the  end  of  the  fifteenth,  or  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth. 
Modern  geography  represente  to  us  the  state  of  the  world  and 
its  poliUcS  divifions,  from  the  sixteenO^  century  to  the  present 

''"Antiquity  has  handed  down  to  us  the  works  of  "veral  very 
eminent  geographers,  the  most  celebrated  of  whom  are  Strabo, 
pTolemy,  PompSnius  Mela,  Pausanias.  and  Stephanus  of  Byzan- 
Uum  ^Among  the  moderns  who  have  laboured  in  this  depart- 
ment  of  geography,  those  more  particularly  deserving  of  notice, 
Te  cSvier^CefiarVus.  Briet.  DlnviUe,  Gosselin,  Mannert,  and 

^  The  geography  of  the  middle  ages  is  but  little  known  ;  and 
remains  yei  a  sort  of  desert  which  demands  culuvation.  There 
does  not  W  a  single  geographical  work  which  g'ves  a  correct 
representation  of  that  new  order  of  things.  w»l'ch  the  German 
nations  introduced  into  Europe  after  the  downfall  of  th«  Roman 
Empire  in  the  fifth  century.  The  luerati  of  ?««"  »"*  Ger- 
many  have  thrown  some  rays  of  light  on  certain  parts  of  these 
obscure  regions ;  but  no  nation  in  Europe  can  yet  boast  of  having 

*^0f Sem  Sors,  Te  most  consnicuous  as  the  restorer  of 
geographical  science,  is  Sebastian  Munster.  a  G""™"".  ''»« 
iubliahed  a  voluminous  work  on  cosmography,  towards  he 
Sd  e  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  Flemings  and  the  Dutch 
have  been  among  the  earliest  cultivators  of  geography  since 
£^  revivSlof  leuers.  Ortelius,  Gerard  Mercator,  Varenius, 
Jans Z  Bleau.  and  Fischer,  are  well  known  by  the  maps  and 
learned  works  which  they  have  produced.  v        .»  *.» 

Among  the  number  of  celebrated  French  geographers  are  to 
be  reckoned  Sanson,  Delisle.  Cassini,  D'Anville;  and  more 
recemly  Z«inoni,  Bauche,  Mentelle.  Barbie  du  Bocage.  Ma Ito- 
Brun.  L.  Delisle  is  the  first  who  submitted  geography  to  the 
touchstone  of  astronomical  observation.  BuscEing,  a  German 
wrote  a  work  on  geography,  which  has  been  translated  into 
reverafTansu^,  and  his  received  various  addilionu  and 
S?rlmST,;eciallv  in  the  hands  of  t»-  French  tranak- 
tors.  M.  Bitter,  a  professor  at  Berhn,  published  a  work  m 
which  he  gives  anew  and  scientific  form  to  geography. 

h  WM  during  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  feni'wMg, 
dMatt^tion  of  the  lw«M»d  *"  »««^  »»'*  partKularly  tow«i^ 


I 


IMgiaphy,  wbcn  a  sniw  of  tlie  meit  doguit  nuft  appotnd  in 
tH  the  pnncipal  stttM  of  Europo.  TIm  wan  that  sprung  from 
the  lOTolation  encouraged  Mveral  engineers  and  geographers, 
both  foreigners  and  Frenchmen,  to  puolish  those  masterpieces 
of  their  art,  the  charu  and  plans  of  the  countries  that  had  served 
as  the  theatre  of  hostilities.  , 

Connected  with  geography  is  the  science  of  Statiitict,  or  the 
study  of  the  constitution  and  political  economy  of  states.  Two 
Italians,  Sansovino  and'Botero,  about  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  were  the  first  that  uttempted  to  treat  this  as  a  particular 
science,  separate  and  distinct  from  geography.  The  Germans 
followed  nearly  in  the  footsteps  of  the  Italian  writers ;  they 
introduced  statistics  into  their  Universities  as  a  branch  of  study, 
and  gave  it  also  the  name  by  which  it  is  still  known.*  It  was 
chiefly,  however,  during  the  course  of  the  eighteenth  century 
that  the  governments  of  Europe  encouraged  the  study  of  this 
new  science,  which  borrows  its  illustrations  from  history,  and 
constitutes  at  present  an  essential  branch  of  national  polity. 

Gbnealoov,  or  the  science  which  treats  of  the  origin  and 
descent  of  illustrious  families,  is  not  less  important  to  the 
knowledge  of  history,  than  geography.  It  teaches  us  to  know 
and  distinguish  the  principal  characters  that  have  actiid  a  con> 
spicuous  part  on  the  theatre  of  the  world ;  and  by  giving  us 
clear  and  explicit  ideas  of  the  lieH  of  relationship  that  subsist 
among  sovereigns,  it  enables  us  to  investigate  the  rights  of 
succession,  and  the  respective  claims  of  rival  princes. 

The  study  of  Genealogy  is  full  of  difficulties,  on  account  of 
the  uncertamty  and  fabulous  obscurity  in  which  the  origin  of 
almost  every  great  family  is  enveloped.  Vanity,  aided  by  flattery, 
has  given  birth  to  a  thousand  legendary  wonders,  that  fall  to 
pieces  at  the  touch  of  sound  criticism.  It  is  by  the  light  of  this 
science  that  we  learn  to  distinguish  certainties  from  probabilities,' 
and  probabilities  from  fables  and  conjectures.  Few  families 
who  have  occupied  the  thrones  of  former  dynasties,  or  who  now 
hold  pre-eminent  rank  in  Europe,  can  trace  their  genealogy 
beyond  the  twelfth  century.  The  House  of  Capet  is  the  only 
one  that  can  boast  of  a  pedigree  that  reaches  back  to  the  middle 
of  the  ninth  century.  The  origin  of  the  royal  families  of 
Savoy,  Lorrain,  Brunswick,  England,  and  Baden,  belongs  to  the 
eleventh  century  ;  all  the  others  are  of  a  date  posterior  to  these. 

A  single  fact  in  diplomatics  has  proved  suflncient  to  discredit 
a  multitude  of  errors  and  fables,  that  tradition  had  engrafted 
on  the  legends  of  the  dark  ages.  From  the  examinations  that 
have  been  made  of  ancient  charters  and  records,  thele  is  ahnn- 
dant  evidence  that,  prior  to  the  twelfth  centoiy,  tmmg  fiuniliea 


•gant  mapt  appetrad  in 
I  wan  that  tprung  from 
ineen  and  geographers, 
lish  those  roastei^ieces 
ountries  that  had  served 

nee  of  ^atittici,  or  the 
sonomy  of  states.  Two 
;he  end  of  the  sixteenth 
treat  this  as  a  particular 
^phy.  The  Germans 
le  Italian  writers ;  they 
ies  as  a  branch  of  study, 
8  stiil  known.*     It  was 

the  eighteenth  century 
raged  the  study  of  this 
itions  from  historvi  and 
;h  of  national  polity, 
reats  of  the  origin  and 

less  important  to  the 
It  teaches  us  to  know 
s  that  have  acted  a  con- 
orld ;  and  by  giving  us 
elationsbip  that  subsist 
nvestigate  the  rights  of 
r  rival  princeii. 
ifliculties,  on  account  of 
r  in  which  the  origin  of 
Vanity,  aided  by  flattery, 
ry  wonders,  that  fall  to 
It  is  by  the  light  of  this 
linties  from  probabilities,' 
ijectures.  Few  families 
tr  dynasties^  or  who  now 
n  trace  their  genealogy 
ise  of  Capet  is  the  only 
aches  back  to  the  middle 
if  the  royal  families  of 
nd  Riden,  belongs  to  the 
a  date  posterior  to  these, 
red  sufficient  to  discredit 

tradition  had  engrafted 
m  the  examinations  that 
d  reeorda,  thele  is  abiu- 
cmtoiyi  amoiiK  fiuDiliea 


MTMBVOTlOlf  •  ^ 

even  the  most  illustriotts,  the  dntinetUm  of  sumMnM  waa  an* 
known.  The  greatest  noblemen,  and  the  presumption  u  much 
stronger  that  common  gentlemen,  never  uaed  any  other  signa- 
ture than  their  baptismal  name ;  to  which  they  sometimes  an- 
nexed that  of  the  dignity  or  order  with  which  they  jvere  invested. 
There  was  therefore  little  chance  of  distinguishing  familiea 
from  each  other,  and  still  less  of  distinguishing  individuals  of 
one  and  the  same  family.  It  was  only  towards  the  end  of  the 
eleventh  century,  and  during  the  era  of  the  crusades,  that  the  use 
of  family  names  was  gradually  introduced ;  and  that  they  began, 
in  their  public  transactions,  to  superadd  to  their  baptismal  and 
honorary  names,  that  of  the  country  or  territory  they  possessed, 
or  the  castle  where  they  had  their  residence  ;  and  it  must  have 
required  nearly  two  hundred  years  before  this  practice  became 
general  in  Europe. 

The  Germans  were  the  first,  after  the  Reformation,  who 
combined  the  study  of  genealogy  with  that  of  history.  Among 
their  most  distinguished  genealogists  may  be  mentioned  Rein- 
erus  Reineccius,  Jerome  Henninges,  Elias  Reusner,  Nicolas 
Rittershusius,  James- William  Imhof,  and  the  two  Gebhards  of 
Luneburg,  father  and  son.  The  work  of  Hennit.ges  is  much 
sought  after,  on  account  of  its  rarity ;  but  the  genealogical 
labours  of  the  two  Gebhards  are  partiaularlv  remarkable  for  the 
profound  and  accurate  criticism  they  display.  The  principal 
writers  on  this  subject  among  the  French  are,  D'Hozier,  Gode- 
froy,  Andrew  Duchesne,  St.  Marine,  Father  Ansclme,  Chazot  de 
Nantigny,  and  M.  de  St.  AUais. 

Chbonologv,  or  the  science  of  computing  lime,  represents 
facts  or  events  in  the  order  in  which  they  have  occurri?d.  The 
historian  ought  by  no  means  to  neglect  to  ascertain,  as  nearly 
as  possible,  the  exact  and  precise  date  of  events  ;  since,  without 
this  knowledge,  he  will  be  perpetually  liable  to  commit  anachro> 
nisms,  to  confound  things  with  persons,  and  often  to  mistake 
effects  for  causes,  or  causes  for  effects. 

This  study  is  not  without  its  difficulties,  which  are  as  perplex- 
ing as  they  are  singularly  various,  both  in  kind  and  degree. 
These  embarrassments  relate  chiefly,  1.  To  the  age  of  the 
world ;  2.  The  difierent  forms  of  the  year ;  3.  The  number  of 
years  that  elapsed  from  the  creation  to  the  birth  of  Christ ;  4. 
The  variety  of  epochs  or  periods  of  reckoning  lime. 

Many  of  the  ancient  philosophers  maintained  that  the  world 
was  eternal.  Ocellus  Lucanus,  a  Greek  philosopher  of  the  Py- 
thagorean sect,  attempted  to  prove  this  hypothesis,  in  a  treatisa 
entitled  De  Vnii^erso,  which  the  Marquis  D'Argens  and  the 
Abb^  Batteuxhave  translated  into  French.    Aristotle  followed 


■M' 


h  Am  fMUMM  of  OmUm.    His  opinion  u  to  tho  otoraitjr  of 

Some  nwKioni  phUoiophon,  h  Buffon,  Hupikon,  Dolomiou, 
SowSrorpISiVSt.  Vond.  fcc.  hate  m.^«I  to  our  globe 
«  eSSceUg  Mte rior  to  the  •>«.  *hen  hUtory  commeBC.^ 
Tli>  WMonln/thoy  wppon  by  the  conformttion  of  the  globe 
uSf  iniTl  -  A?  time  that  mutt  have  nece.sanly  elap^d 
Sfori  Ae  «rth!  in  the  progr...i»e  operation,  of  nature,  could 
Im  Min^aMd  a  ■oitable  habitation  for  man. 
^fhe  SSt  andem  account  that  we  hfve  of  the  or.gm  of  the 
world,  and  of  the  human  race,  w  dented  f«>n» Jj""^  „*  J  * 
W»  and  lawiriver  of  the  Jewish  nation,  hted  about  1600  years 
bo^  Sirist7ind  nearly  1000  before  Herodotus,  the  most  an- 
dXrofanl  au"hor  whL  works  have  been  h«d«d  *own  to 
STtimes.    According  to  Moses  and  the  J«*"J /""l'-*' 
hStoiT  of  the  human  race  does  not  yet  comprehend  a  per  od  of 
.2  oSwand  years.    This  account  seems  to  be  m  opposition  to 
St  ofTera\  ancient  nations,  such  a.  the  EgypUan-  Indmns. 
Sdeans.  Thibetians,  and  Chinese,  who  carrv  Wk  theirchro^ 
nnWv  to  a  verv  remote  date,  and  far  beyond  what  Moses  bas 
;2?g?ed  trth7h"uln  race!    Butit  is  sufficient  at  p«sen^^^ 
!.in»rk  that  this  hifih  antiquty,  which  vanity  has  led  these  na- 

puJely  mylhLgical.  founJed  on  a  symbolical  theobgy,  whote 
mv«teries  and  alleKories  have  been  but  little  understood.  This 
SelaleDoJhs  usually  filled  with  gods  and  demigods,  who 
Kleged^t^have  reigned  over  these  nations  for  so  m«,y  my- 

""rraditLTio  fabulous  and  chimerical  will  never  de«troy  the 
auSentcuJ  of  Moses,  who  independently  of  h«  "'t'"'^.  "J 
!k  «.m«ta  «ffe  in  which  he  lived,  merits  implicit  credit  from 
t,  Sucit/of  hil naiative,  and  from  the  circumst«.ce,  th.t 
V  Sl^i^M  never  vet  been  discovered  on  the  surface,  or  in  the 
5u7n5"  ructu're^of  the  earth,  any  organic  evidence  or  work  of 
intarnai  »"«'=^"  .     ,  believe  that  the  history  of  the 

^""IH"  f  m^Je  D?o  JrW  speaWnrof  the  human  race,  is  ante- 
r^ent "  Se  agrSS  trjewfsh  legislator  ha.  assigned  U 

With  regard  to  the  division  of  time,  a  ^""de'able  period 

miMt,  no  dfubt,  have  elapsed  before  men  began  to  reckon  by 

i  criculated  according  to  astronomical  observe  ions.    Two 

f  or  formrof  computation  have  been  successively  m  use 


lien  M  to  th«  ttoniit]r  of 
omroontoriea  on  Phyiiei. 
m,  Hupihon,  Dolomitu, 
ve  Mtignod  to  our  globe 
rhen  history  commencea. 
mformetion  of  the  globe 
have  necessarily  elapsed 
lerations  of  nature,  could 

•"•  .  .      ,  t. 

ave  of  the  origin  of  the 

itrcd  from  Moses.    This 

m,  lived  about  1600  years 

Herodotus,  the  most  an< 
ve  been  handed  down  to 

the  Jewish  annals,  the 
t  comprehend  a  period  of 
sms  to  be  in  opposition  to 
s  the  Egyptians,  Indians, 
rho  carry  l«clt  their  chro- 

beyond  what  Moses  has 
;  is  sufBcient  at  present  to 
\i  vanity  has  led  these  na- 
■  altogether  imaginary,  or 
mbolical  theology,  whose 
It  little  understood.  This 
,  gods  and  demigods,  who 
e  notions  for  so  many  my- 

ical  will  never  destroy  the 
dently  of  his  nativity,  and 
nerils  implicit  credit  from 
rom  the  circumstance,  that 
i  on  the  surface,  or  in  the 
rganic  evidence  or  work  of 
!ve  that  the  historjr  of  the 
f  the  human  race,  is  ante- 
legislator  has  assigned  it. 
line,  a  considerable  period 
5  men  began  to  reckon  by 
omical  observations.    Two 
J  been  successively  in  use 
e  employed  solar  years,  cal- 
sun ;  others  have  made  use 
sriodical  revolutions  of  the 
present  day  adopt  the  solar 


iimoMieTioii.  ■* 

year;  while  the  lunar  calculation  is  that  followed  by  tho  Map 
hometwis.  The  solar  year  consisto  of  386  <l»y».  £»»«"••  »• 
46",  30'" ;  the  lunar  year,  of  364  days,  3  hours,  48',  2ff,lW. 
The  invention,  or  more  properlv  speaking,  the  calculation  of 
the  solar  year,  is  due  to  the  ancient  Egyptians,  who,  by  tho 
position  of  their  country,  as  well  as  by  the  periodical  overflow- 
ings and  ebbings  of  the  Nile,  had  earljr  and  obvious  induce- 
ments for  making  astronomical  observations.  The  solar  year 
has  undergone,  in  process  of  time,  various  corrections  and  do- 
nominations.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  are  indicated  by 
the  distinctions,  still  in  use,  of  the  Julian,  the  Gregorian,  and 
the  Reformed  year. 

Julius  Cffisar  introduced  into  the  Roman  empire,  the  solar  or 
Egyptian  year,  which  took  from  him  the  name  of  the  Julian 
year.  This  he  substituted  instead  of  the  lunar  year,  which  the 
Romans  had  used  before  his  time.  It  was  distinguished,  on  a6« 
count  of  a  slight  variation  in  the  reckoning,  into  the  common 
and  bissextile  or  leap  year.  The  common  Julian  year  consist- 
ed of  366  days  ;  and  the  bissextile,  which  returned  every  four 
years,  of  366  days.  This  computation  was  faulty,  inasmuch 
as  it  allowed  365  days,  and  6  entire  hours,  for  the  annual  re- 
volution of  the  sun;  being  an  excess  every  year,  of  11',  14", 
30"',  beyond  the  true  time.  This,  in  a  Ions  course  of  agea, 
had  amounted  to  several  days ;  and  began,  at  length,  to  derange 
the  order  of  the  seasons. 

Pope  Gregory  XIII.,*  wishinff  to  correct  this  error,  employed 
an  able  mathematician,  named  Louis  Lilio,  to  reform  the  Juoan 
year,  according  to  the  true  annual  course  of  the  suih  A  new 
calendar  was  drawn  up,  which  was  called  after  the  name 
of  that  pontiff,  the  Gregorian  calendar ;  and  as,  in  consequenc* 
of  the  incorrectness  of  the  Julian  era,  the  civil  vear  had  gained 
ten  days,  the  same  Pope  ordered,  by  a  bull  published  in  1681, 
that  these  should  be  expunged  from  the  calendar ;  so  that,  in- 
stead of  the  6th  of  October  1682,  they  should  reckon  it  the  15th. 
The  Catholic  States  adopted  this  new  calendar  without  the 
least  difficulty;  but  the  Protestants  in  the  Empire,  and  the 
rest  of  Europe,  as  also  the  Russians  and  the  Greeks,  adhered 
to  the  Julian  year ;  and  hence  the  distinction  between  the  old 
and  new  style,  to  which  it  is  necessary  to  pay  attention  in  nil 
public  acts  and  writings  since  the  year  1682  of  the  Christiui 
era.  The  difference  between  the  old  and  new  style,  whicb. 
until  1699,  was  only  ten  days,  and  eleven  from  the  commoner 
ment  of  1700,  must  be  reckoned  twelve  days  dwring  the  pre> 
sent  century  of  1800;  so  that  the  Ist  of  January  of  dm  di 
year,  answers  to  the  13th  of  the  new. 
VOL.  I.  3  -     - 


Th«  Rtformed  Ytar  a  CaUndar,  m  U  ii  ctlled,  !•  dUtlnct 
from  lh«  Oregoritn,  aad  •poliea  to  th«  calculation  of  the  year, 
which  was  made  by  a  profewor  at  Jena,  named  Weiffe  .     It 
difftn  from  the  Gregorian  year,  u  to  the  method  of  calcnlnting 
the  time  of  Easter,  and  the  other  movcnble  feast*  of  the  Chris- 
tian churches.     The  Protestants  of  Germany,  Hollo.iil,  Don- 
maric  and  Switzerland,  adopted  this  new   culen.Ur   in    17Utl 
Their  example  was  followed  in  1762,  by  Great  Bntn.n ;  and  m 
17fi3,  by  Sweden;  but  since  the  year  1776,  the  I'rotcslonls  of 
Germany,  Switzerland  and  Holland,  abandoned  the  reformed 
caUu^dar,  and  adopted  the  Gregorian  ;  ond  there  is.  properly 
speaking,  no  nation  in  E'.rope  ot  this  day,  except  the  Russians 
and  the  Greeks,  which  makes  use  of  the  Julion  calendar,  or 

*  Buf  iTis  not  merely  the  variations  thot  have  prevailed  as  to 
the  form  and  computation  of  the  yeor.  that  have  perplexed  the 
science  of  chronology ;  the  different  methods  of  commencing 
it,  have  also  been  the  source  of  much  confusion.     The  Komans, 
from  the  time  of  Julius  Ciesar,  began  the  year  on  the  first  of 
January.     The  ancient  Oieeks  at  first  reckoned  from  the  w.n- 
t«r  solstice,  ond  afterwaids  from  midsummer;  the  Syro-Mace- 
donians  or  Seleucidm,  commenced  from  the  autumnal  equinox. 
The  sacred  year  of  the  Jews,  began  with  the  fi"tnew  moon 
after  the  vernal  equinox,  that  is,  in  the  month  of  March ;  and 
their  civil  year  began  with  the  new  moon  immediately  follow- 
ing the  autumnal  equinox,  that  is,  in  the  month  of  September. 
The  same  diversity  of  practice  which  we  observe  among  the 
ancients,  existed  also'in  tfie  middle  ages.    The  F'«"X"^" 
the  Merovingian  kings,  began  the  year  with  the  month  of  March. 
The  Popes  began  it  sometimes  at  Christmas, or  the  25th  ot  lie- 
camber ;  sometimes  on  the  1st  of  January  ;  and  «o;n«7«7'» 
the  26th  of  March,  called  indiscriminately  the  day  of  the  Annun- 
ciation or  Incarnation.     Under  the  Carlovmgian  princes,  two 
methods  of  beginning  the  year  were  generally  Fev«lent  m 
France,— the  one  fixed  its  commencement  at  Christmas,  or  tne 
26lh  of  December,  and  the  other  at  Easter ;  that  »•  «  Je  day 
on  which  that  moveable  feast  happened  to  fall.     T^"  >«"« 
custom  prevailed  also  under  the  Capetian  kings,  and  it  was  not 
alppresied    until    near  the  middle  of  »he  sixteenth  century. 
Cbarlea  IX.,  by  an  edict  published  in  1664,  ordered,  that  in 
France  the  year  should  henceforth  commence  on  the  "t  ot  Ja- 
Bouy.     Previously  to  this  edict,  it  sometimes  happened,  from 
the  variable  date  of  Easter,  that  the  same  month  was  «»»"*  to 
•ecut  twice  in  one  and  the  same  year.     For  e»™Pl£;  *«  yf" 
1368  having  begun  on  the  Ist  of  Apnl,  on  which  Jiaater  oay 


U  called,  ia  dMtinet 
alcuUtion  of  the  year. 
«,  named  Weiflfel.     It 

method  of  ralciilnting 
ble  fenstA  of  the  Chrin* 
rmany,  HollomI,  Don- 
'w   cutrndHr   in    1700 

Great  Brilnin  ;  and  in 
776,  the  Protctiants  of 
mndoned  the  reformed 
and  there  is,  properly 
,y,  except  the  Rusftions 
he  Julian  calendar,  or 

at  have  prevailed  m  to 
hat  have  perplexed  the 
iGlhndfl  of  commencing 
nfusion.     The  Romans, 
the  year  on  the  first  of 
reckoned  from  the  win- 
immer;  the  Syro-Mace- 
I  the  autumnal  equinox, 
rith  the  first  new  moon 
!  month  of  March ;  and 
oon  immediately  follow- 
|ie  month  of  September. 
;h  we  observe  among  the 
rea.     The  Franks,  under 
with  the  month  of  March. 
istma!(,  or  the  2fith  of  De- 
nary ;  and  sometimes  on 
sly  the  day  of  the  Annun- 
arlovingian  princes,  two 
I  generally  prevalent  in 
lent  at  Christmas,  or  the 
aster ;  that  is,  at  the  day 
ned  to  fall.     This  latter 
tian  kings,  and  it  was  not 
)f  the  sixteenth  century, 
n  1564,  ordered,  that  m 
namence  on  the  Ist  of  Ja- 
imetimes  happened,  from 
ime  month  was  found  to 
For  example,  the  year 
il,  on  which  Easier  day 


^  iimoMNrrMif.  W 

happMied  to  fall,  did  not  terminat*  until  the  IXKh  of  April  fol- 
lowing, that  it,  on  the  eT(<  preceding  Eattar.  There  were  coa> 
iequenlly  in  this  year,  nearly  two  complete  montha  of  April. 
Since  the  reign  of  Chnrles  IX.,  if  has  continued  the  invariabU 
practice  in  France  to  begin  thu  yMf  hi  ih'   1st  of  January. 

In  England,  the  year  tixe d  di  commem-e  i,,,  'he  25th  of  Marcht 
and  the  old  style  \va  'hero  ohnfrwd  Miitil  173^  ;  when,  by  vir* 
tue  of  an  act  of  Parlian^nt,  passed  in  J 7,^2,  the  beginning  of 
the  year  was  transferred  to  tt)«  1st  of  Januar/-  It  wasdecreod 
also,  at  the  Name  time,  that,  in  or'^er  to  accommodata  the  En> 
glish  chronology  to  the  new  styU',  ihe  3d  of  September  l7ISf 
should  be  reckoned  the  14lh  of  the  !,uiiiu  month.         ' 

It  is  easy  to  conceive  the  perplexity  and  coiifiision  that  mast 
have  been  introduced  into  chronology,  as  much  by  the  diflfar- 
ence  of  styles  as  by  the  different  methods  of  commencing  th« 
year.  Nothing  is  more  probable,  than  that  we  should  hare 
find  mistakes  nnd  contradictions  which,  in  leality,  have  no  ex- 
istence ;  und  (he  more  su,  os  the  writecs  or  recorders  of  public 
acts,  who  employ  these  difTcrent  styles,  or  date  the  beginnmg  of 
the  year  Viirinusly,  never  ^ive  us  anv  intimation  on  the  sub- 
ject ;  and  nil  reckon  promiscuously  from  the  year  of  Christ's 
nativity,  without  informing  us  whether  they  follow  the  old  or 
the  new  stylo — whether  they  commence  the  year  in  the  month 
of  January  or  March,  at  Easter  or  at  Christmas. 

Modern  chronologists  have  fuund  much  embarrassment  in 
calculating  the  nimiber  of  years  that  elapsed  between  the  cra»> 
tion  and  the  birth  of  Christ.  Father  Petau,  one  of  the  moat 
learned  men  in  this  science,  admits,  that  this  point  of  chrono* 
loffy  is  to  be  established  rather  by  probable  canjectures  than  so* 
lid  arguments.  There  have  even  oeen  reckoned,  according  to 
Fabricius,  about  a  hundred  and  forty  different  opinions  respect- 
ing  the  epoch  of  Christ's  nativity.  Some  fix  this  era  in  tha 
year  of  the  world  3616,  while  others  carry  it  back  to  tha  year 
6484.  This  great  discordance  of  opinions  arises  from  the  con- 
tradictions found  to  exist  between  the  three  principal  texts  of  tho 
Old  Testament.  The  Hebrew  text,  for  instance,  to  which  most 
chronologists  gives  the  nreference,  fixes  the  deluge  in  the  year 
of  the  world  1656 ;  while,  according  to  the  Samaritan  text,  it 
happened  in  1307 ;  and,  according  to  the  Septuagiiit,  in  2S42. 
The  system  at  present  most  accredited,  is  that  of  Archbishc^ 
Usher,  an  Irish  prelate,  who,  founding  his  calculation  on  tha 
Hebrew  text,  fixes  the  date  of  Christ's  nativity  in  the  yaar  4^ 
the  world  4000. 

A  variety  of  epochs  prevailed  at  diflerent  times ;  as  moat  wm' 
tioos,  both  ancient  and  DMdem,  who  had  governments  and  Uwt 


m 


oHArntK  I. 


of  their  own,  adopted  ckronological  eras  that  were  pecuhar  to 
themaelves.  The  ancient  Greeks  had  their  Olympiads,  and 
the  Svro-Macedonians  the  era  of  the  Seleucidas.  The  Romans 
calottlated  by  consulships,  which  became  the  era  of  their  pubhc 
acts;  and  besides  these,  their  historians  used  to  reckon  from 
(he  foundation  of  the  city,  which  goes  back  762  years  before 
Christ,  or  3249  after  the  creation.  The  era  of  Diociesian,  in- 
trodueed  in  honour  of  that  emperor,  and  8omet>™es  aJso  called 
the  era  of  the  martyrs,  began  in  the  year  284  after  Christ,  and 
Wor  a  long  time  used  in  the  West.  But,  without  stopping 
here  to  enumerate  the  different  eras  of  antiquity,  we  shall  rather 
reatrict  ourselves  at  present  to  the  pointing  out  of  those  that 
belong  more  properly  to  modern  historv.  viz.  1.  The  era  of 
the  modem  Greeks.  2.  Of  the  modern  Jewc  3.  Of  .ne  Spa- 
niards. 4.  The  Hegira,  or  Mahometan  era.  5.  Tne  Uiony 
aian,  or  Christian  era.  ,  , 

The  era  of  the  modern  Greeks  is  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Mundane  era  of  Constantinople.  It  begins  6508  years  before 
the  birth  of  Christ.  The  first  year  of  the  Incarnation  thus  falls 
in  the  yenr  of  the  world  5609 ;  and,  consequently,  the  year 
1823  of  the  Christian  era  answers  to  the  year  7331  of  the  Mun- 
dane era  of  Constantinople.  Under  this  system,  tvvo  kinds  of 
years  are  in  use,  the  civil  and  the  ecclesiastical.  The  former 
commences  with  the  month  of  September,  the  other  has  begun 
sometimes  on  the  21st  of  March,  and  sometimes  on  the  1st  of 
AprU.  This  era  is  followed,  even  at  this  day,  by  the  Oreek 
ehurch.  The  Russians,  who  adopted  it  from  the  Greeks,  along 
with  the  Christian  religion,  made  use  of  it  even  m  their  civil 
acta,  untfl  the  reign  of  Peter  the  Great.  That  emperor,  in 
1700.  ahjlished  the  Mundane  era  of  Constantinople,  and  sub- 
stituted in  its  place,  the  Christian  era,  and  the  Julian  calendar 

"'The'mSem  Jews  h-we  likewise  a  mundane  era ;  as  they 
reckon  from  the  creation  of  the  world.  !{•  <=°""™«"f  ^  «»  '^ 
7th  of  October  of  the  Julian  year,  and  reckons  3761  years  be- 
fore Christ.  Tho  year  3762  of  the  world,  is  the  first,  of  the 
Christian  era,  according  to  the  Jews ;  and  the  current  year 
(18B3)  answers  to  the  year  6583  of  their  mundane  era. 

iTspain.  the  era  bejan  with  the  year  of  Rome  714,  thirty- 
eight  ySars  before  the  birth  of  Christ ;  being  the  time  when  the 
tnumvirate  was  renewed  between  Cassar  Octavianus,  Mark  An- 
tony, and  Lepidus.  The  Spaniards,  wishing  to  give  Octavi^ 
no/some  testimony  of  their  satisfaction  on  being  comprehended 
wHhm  his  province,  began  a  new  era  with  this  event,*  which 
praT^ed  not  only  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  but  also  m  Afnca. 


fts  that  were  peculiar  to 
d  their  Olympiads,  and 
leleucidffi.  The  Romans 
ne  the  era  of  their  public 
ns  used  to  reckon  from 
1  back  762  years  before 
le  era  of  Dioclesian,  in- 
nd  sometimes  also  called 
ear  284  after  Christ,  and 
But,  without  stopping 
antiquity,  we  shall  rather 
inting  out  of  those  that 
lory,  viz.  1.  The  era  of 
•n  Jewc  3.  Of  ihe  Spa- 
tan  era.     5.  The  Diony- 

nown  by  the  name  of  the 
begins  6508  years  before 

the  Incarnation  thus  falls 
I,  consequently,  the  year 
he  year  7331  of  the  Mun- 
this  system,  two  kinds  of 
clesiastical.  The  former 
mber,  the  other  has  begun 

sometimes  on  the  1st  of 
at  this  day,  by  the  Greek 
1  it  from  the  Greeks,  along 
J  of  it  even  in  their  civil 
3reat.     That  emperor,  in 

Constantinople,  and  sub- 
i,  and  the  Julian  calendar 

I  a  mundane  era ;  as  they 
Id.  It  commences  on  the 
id  reckons  3761  years  he- 
world,  is  the  first  of  the 
»s;  and  the  current  year 
iheir  mundane  era. 
year  of  Rome  714,  thirty- 
;  being  the  time  when  the 
Bsar  Octavianus,  Mark  An- 
I,  wishing  to  give  Octavia- 
,ion  on  being  comprehended 
ra  with  this  event,*  which 
ortugal,  but  also  in  Africt, 


UmOBVOTIM*  ** 

ftnd  tliose  parte  of  France  which  were  aubject  to  th«  dominion 
of  the  VisSoAs.  It  is  of  great  importance  to  ^J"!"^.  »*«»  *J; 
Spaniards  and  Portuguese  constantly  ••np^y**  *Sk  ~  i?«  W 
Ss  and  public  acte.  so  late  as  the  l4th  and  16th  centuries, 
when  they  substituted  the  Christian  era  in  its  place. 

The  era  which  the  Mussulman  nations  follow  is  that  of  Ma- 
homet, caUed  the  Herira.  or  the  Fbght  of  the  Prophet.  It  hj- 
can  on  the  16th  of  July  622  A.  C,  and  is  composed  of  lunar 
SLJ  hi  order  to  find  out  in  what  year  of  the  vulgar  em  any 
K  year  Sf  the  Hegira  falls,  it  is  necessary  &«»  »«  r^luos 
Se  lunar  into  solar  yiars,  and  then  add  the  number  622.  Fg 
^ple.  the  year  1^ of  the  Hepra.  answer,  to  theyear  1^ 
ofthe  vulgar,  or  Christian  era.  It  began  on  the  18Ui  of  Sq^ 
?embJr  18^,  and  ended  on  the  7th  of  the  following  September. 

DTonysius  or  Denys  the  Little,  a  Roman  Abb^.  who Jivedm 
the  time  of  the  Emperor  Justinian,  about  the  year  of  Christ  fflO, 

WM  Ihe  author  of  tVe  vulgar  e^a.  whi^V^"''"'*' "S:^*  * 
more  perfect  form  from  the  hwds  of  the  venerable  Bede^^ 
English  monk,  about  the  year  720.  Before »!«» »;™«l*;  *Jf»; 
or  Christians  of  the  West,  employed  the  era  of  the  Consuls,  « 
that  of  Dioclesian.     Denys  the  Little,  }™«8™'?'S."  ^^^  > 
more  convenient  for  the  dhri8t«ir.s  to  reckon  Uieir  uine  from  A. 
Krth  of  Christ,  applied  himself  with  great  industry  ^  calcukte 
the  number  of  years  that  had  elapsed  firom  the  I'»«»"»;on  to 
Ss  own  times.     Modern  chronoWs**  have  remaiked,  thtf 
bith  Denvs  and  Bede  were  mistaken  in  their  calculations ;  hot 
a  Sffere/ce^f  opinion  prevdls  on  this  suWect.  a.  may  be 
leei  in  the  learned  worTk  of  Fabricius.    There  are  some  of 
JSse  iUnolorists  who  date  the  birth  of  Christ  tWrty-four  ye«r« 
eaTeriS  olhers  find  a  difference  of  but  one  yo".  or  amort 
?our  Keen  the  true  epoch  of  the  nativity,  and  Uiat  adopted 
by  Denyr  This  disagre^ent  of  the  modem  ehronologj.;.  hjj 
pWrisetothe  distinction  between  the  ''^.'f- "^  f «  Jj^ 
Sf  Christ,  and  Uie  Vulgar  or  Dumynanen,  which  the  general 
usase  has  .  )w  consecrated  and  established. 

In  France,  this  era  was  not  introduced  until  the  eighth  century. 
We  find  it  employed,  for  the  first  time,  in  the  acts  of  the  Coun- 
Ss  of  GerZy!  Liptines.  and  Soissons.  »»eW  ij  '^e  yjarj 
742-3-4,  undei-  Pepin,  surnamed  the  Short.  The  Kin«  of 
FWnever  used  it  in  their  public  acts,  unU  the  end  of  the 
ninth  century;  and  the  Poj^s  only  since  »he  oleventh. 

In  order  to  compare  the  different  eras,  and  to  facilitate  tta 
pri^ess  of  reducing  the  years,  of  one  into  those  of  «o^her,  a 
Mheme  has  beeen  proposed  called  the  Julian  period.  The  ra- 
^nSn  of  tiiis  is  due  to  Joseph  Scaliger,  a  professor  at  Leyd«», 


•.jgk 


30  oHArrBE  i»- 

■nd  w«U  known  by  his  chronological  works.  He  eave  it  the 
nmne  of  Julian,  because  the  Julian  year  served  as  the  basis  of 
h.  It  is  composed  of  the  several  products  of  the  cycles  of  the 
son,  the  moon,  and  the  indictions  multiplied  by  each  other. 

The  cycU  of  ike  tun  is  a  period,  or  revolution  of  twenty, 
eight  solar  years ;  at  the  end  of  which  the  same  order  of  years 
returns,  by  a  kind  of  circle  or  cycle.  Its  use  is  to  indicate  the 
day*  on  which  each  year  commences,  and  the  Dominical  Let* 
ters.  These  are  the  iirst  seven  letters  of  the  alphabet,  a,  b,  c, 
D,  B,  p,  o,  which  are  employed  to  indicate  the  seven  days  of  die 
week,  more  particularly  the  Sabbath  (diu  Dominica.)  At  the 
end  of  twenty-eight  years,  of  which  this  cycle  is  composed, 
thero  returns  a  new  order  or  series  of  years,  so  similar  to  the 
preceding,  that  the  dominical  letters  again  answer  exactly  to  the 
same  days.  ,  , 

The  cycfe  o/fA«  wioon  comprises  nmeteen  lunar  years,  twelve 
of  which  are  called  common,  and  the  remaining  seven  interca- 
hffy ;  these  yield  a  product  of  6939  dnys  18  hours,  according 
to  the  calculation  of  the  ancients  ;*  and  are  equal  to  nineteen 
Jnlian  or  solar  years.  By  means  of  this  cycle  always  re- 
curring, the  new  moons  fall  again  on  the  same  days  and  the 
same  honrs  on  which  they  had  happened  nineteen  years  before ; 
80  that,  for  all  the  new  moons,  the  cycle  which  is  to  come  is 
entirely  similar  to  the  preceding.  The  cipher  which  indicates 
tlie  year  of  the  cycle,  is  called  the  golden  7iM»i»r,  because  they 
Med  to  write  it  in  characters  of  gold  in  the  ancient  calendars, 
where  it  was  employed  to  mark  the  times  of  the  new  moons. 

The  eyde  of  indtctions  is  a  cycle  which  recurs  every  fifteen 
years ;  and  which,  like  those  already  mentioned,  was  frequent- 
ly employed  in  charters  and  public  records.  The  origin  of 
tMN  indictions  is  generally  referred  to  a  contribution  or  cess 
■ppmnted,  for  fifteen  years,  by  the  Romans,  and  afterwards  re- 
Mirod  for  the  same  period.  They  began  in  the  reign  of  Con- 
atankine  the  Great,  that  is,  about  the  year  of  Christ  313,  and  are 
distmguished  into  three  kinds ;  1.  That  of  Constantinople, 
which  was  employed  by  the  Greek  Emperors,  and  began  on 
the  1st  of  September;  2.  That  which  was  termed  the  Imperial, 
or  Cesarean  indiction,  the  use  of  which  was  limited  to  the 
West,  and  which  began  on  the  26th  of  September ;  and,  3. 
The  Roman  or  Pontifical  indiction,  whkh  the  Popes  employed 
in  their  bulls.  This  last  began  on  the  85di  of  December,  or 
tha  1st  of  January,  according  as  the  one  or  the  other  of  these 
dan  was  reckoned  by  the  Romans  the  first  of  the  new  year. 
The  cycle  of  the  sun,  comprising  twenty-eight  years,  and 

Aat  of  the  moon  nineteen,  when  multiplied  together,  give  a 


MT10DD0THNf« 


rorks.  He  save  it  the 
r  served  as  the  basis  of 
Bts  of  the  cycles  of  the 
ilied  by  each  other, 
revolution  of  twenty- 
lie  same  order  of  years 
ts  use  is  to  indicate  the 
ind  the  Dominical  Let- 
)f  the  alphabet,  a,  b,  c, 
le  the  seven  days  of  die 
ies  Dominica,)  At  the 
lis  cycle  is  composed, 
rears,  so  similar  to  the 
in  answer  exactly  to  the 

een  lunar  years,  twelve 
;maining  seven  interca- 
ivs  18  hours,  according 
1  are  equal  to  nineteen 

this  cycle  always  re- 
the  same  days  and  the 
I  nineteen  years  before ; 
le  which  is  to  come  is 
cipher  which  indicates 
tn  ?tM»tZ*r,  because  ihey 
a  the  ancient  calendars, 
es  of  the  new  moons, 
ich  recurs  every  fifteen 
lentioned,  was  frequent- 
ecords.  The  origin  of 
0  a  contribution  or  cess 
nans,  and  afterwards  re- 
ran in  the  reign  of  Con- 
ar  of  Christ  313,  and  are 
hat  of  Constantinople, 
Smperors,  and  began  on 
iras  termed  the  Imperial, 
lich  was  limited  to  the 

of  September ;  and,  3. 
lich  the  Popes  employed 
B  S5th  of  1)ecember,  or 
ne  or  the  other  of  these 

first  of  the  new  year, 
twenty-eight  years,  and 
Uiplied  together,  give  a 


product  of  A38,  which  is  called  the  Paschal  cycle,  beeanae  it 
serves  to  ascertain  the  feast  of  Easter.  The  product  of  A39, 
multiplied  by^  16,  the  cycle  of  indictions,  amounts  to  the  num* 
ber  7960,  which  constitutes  the  Julian  period.  Within  the  com- 
pass  of  this  period  may  be  placed,  as  it  were,  under  one  view, 
these  different  eras  and  epochs,  in  order  to  coripare  and  recon- 
cile them  with  each  other;  adopting,  as  their ccmmon  term,  the 
nativity  of  Christ,  fixed  to  the  year  4714  of  the  Julian  period. 

History  has  been  divide'^,  according  to  the  different  subjects 
of  which  it  treats,  into  Oivil,  Ecclesiastical,  and  Literary. 
Civil  and  political  history  is  occupied  entirely  with  events 
that  relate  to  mankind,  as  distributed  into  societies,  and  united 
together  by  governments,  laws,  and  manners.  Ecclesiastical 
history  is  confined  to  those  events  that  properly  belong  to  reli- 
gion. Literary  history  treats  more  particularly  of  the  origin, 
progress,  and  vicisnitudes  of  the  arts  and  sciences.  The  His- 
tory of  Philosop^,  which  is  a  subdivision  of  Literary  History, 
illustrates  the  dimrent  systems  of  philosophy  that  have  flou- 
rished in  the  world,  both  in  ancient  and  mmlem  times. 

Another  division  of  history,  according  to  its  extent,  is  that  of 
Universal,  General,  and  Particular  History.  Universal  history 
gives  a  kind  of  outline  or  summary  of  the  events  of  all  the  na- 
tions that  have  figured  on  the  earth,  from  the  remotest  age^  to 
the  present  time. 

By  general  hfstory,  is  understood  that  which  treats  of  the 
revolutions  that  have  happened  in  the  world,  whether  of  great 
states  or  confederate  powers,  or  of  several  nations  combing  to- 
gether, by  various  and  complicated  interests.  Thus,  there  may 
be  a  general  history  of.  France,  or  of  Great  Britain,  a  eeneral 
history  of  the  United  Provinces,  a  general  history  of  Europe, 
6k.  Particular  history  embraces,  in  detail,  the  events  of  a  par* 
ticular  people,  or  province,  or  city,  or  illustrious  individual. 

Finally,  in  regard  to  the  time  of  which  it  treats,  history  is 
distinguished  into  Ancient  and  Modem,  and  that  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  Ancient  history  is  that  of  the  nations  who  flourished 
from  the  time  of  the  creation  to  the  fifth  century ;  while  the 
history  of  the  middle  ages  has,  for  its  object,  the  revolutions 
that  took  place  from  the  fifth  to  Uie  end  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
What  is  now  termed  modem  history,  is  that  which  retraces  the 
events  of  the  last  three  centuries. 

This  division,  whidt  applies  more  particularly  to  the  history 
of  Europe,  is  founded  on  the  great  revolutions  which  this  part 
of  the  world  experienced  in  the  fifth  and  fifteenth  centuries. 
The  revoiatioa  of  the  fifth  century  ended  in  the  subversion  of 
the  Roman  empire  in  the  West,  and  gave  birth  to  the  principal 


1 1' 


V; 

.--V, 


sutw  in  mod«n  Europe ;  while  Ui.t  o^^^^^t^f^l 
SSS  date,  iu  comSTocement  from  the  d«!«»~2<'» .•' *« 
BMten  empire,  brought  along  with  it  the  wnTal  <»(  j»f «»»" 
SihTfine^iru.  end  the  renoTation  of  cm  -o^'fj '»Jf7£ 
Ahhough  ancient  hiatory  doea  not  enter  mto  »he  plan  of  Ae 
folkSHM  work,  nevertheleaa  it  appeared  necemry  to  give  here 
1  S  C  of  it  to  the  reader,  with  the  view  of  connectmg 
Ui^Jnilr  of  time,  and  the  chain  of  U»e  great  event,  that  hare 
Scurred  from  the  remotest  age.  to  the  P«?«'[«**y-  ^•^23? 
diwSd  it  il  three  periods,  the  first  of  which  embrace.  3000. 
tk«  aAcond  1000.  and  the  third  oOO  year..  .      .     ,       . 

ThJ  fi«t  neriod.  which  comprises  thirty  centuries,  is  almost 
wh^Uy  ?iS«Cu       The  notices  of  it  that  have  been  ^nsmitted 
^  a.  ire  verv  imperfect.    The  order  of  Ume  cannot  be  estab- 
^i^S^sSff  foundation.    Even  the  authenticity  of  the 
tol"pa"L  miles,  has  been  called  in  question  ..  spunoas ; 
aS  Aere  is  no  other  chronology  that  can  g««*f  ««J  "^P' 
thmuffh  this  dark  labyrinth  of  profane  history.    The  only  lite- 
S^TonSSentl  that^re  left  is  of  these  "«•»  "J  "^-S: 
SSLare  the  book,  of  Mo.es  and  the  Jews.    Herodotus,  the 
!SSLrtBrofane  historian,  wrote  more  than  a  thousand  year. 
SiTioJS^S  450  before  Christ.    He  had  been  prece- 
Sl?«3'^tlrie8  by  Sanchoniathon  the  Ph«n  cian ;  but 
f^w^rk  of  thS  Stir  hfstorian  is  lost,  and  there  exuit.  only  a 
fei^tWed  fragment,  of  it  in  Porph^rry  a-d  Euwbm.. 
■  TtwD^  therefore,  that  of  the  4600  years  that  fa  1  wilhm 
theSIJ  of  Lient  history,  the  first  thirty  centunes  may, 
JXuXonvenience,  be  retrenched     Amidst  *«  dj^ne..  o 
t^Mre.  we  discover  nothing  but  the  germs  of  societies,  gov- 
tkoM  f^^^^l^JV  -rts     The  Egyptians,  the  Israelites,  the 
•foments, sciences  ana  ana.     ■;"   „V^     •  I      ».  PkaM»Anii 
Senicians,  ihe  Assyrians,  the  Babylomans,  or  Cm>««»«. 
Side  She  most  cinspicuous  figure  among  the  nations  of 

^Th"Eg1p;Sis  and  Chaldean,  were  the  first  who  cuUivat^ 
aateomimY  Egypt  was  long  the  nursery  of  arts  and  sciences 
TtoEician?f  without  an}  other  guide  than  J^e -Jars.  Wd^y 
iarersed  unknown  seas,  anrfgave  a  vast  extent  of  intercourse 
"their  commerce  and  navigation.  They  fo^^^^J^  ""^ 
Slebmted  colonies,  such  as  Carthage  in  Africa,  and  Malaga  and 

^  Tt°LtytfZfo^rwhlch  is  utterly  unknown  during  the 
fci to'^Snd  year^begins  to  exhibit  in  tl-  [  jfj'J^^^^^^ 
rSw  slight  notices  of  ancient  Greece.  A  ™»»^'^"*«  ®*  ?*"; 
iiS  hal  then  taken  root;  mo«t  "f ''•'?'=\'»  ^'«°»' ^'^^JJ 
MdThebes,  had  been  founded  by  colonies  firom  Eppt.    The 


Tf 


err 


r  the  fiftaenth  centary, 
the  deatruction  of  the 
he  ra?iTal  of  literature 
civil  society  in  Europe. 
ter  into  the  plan  of  the 

neeesMury  to  give  here 
the  view  of  connecting 

great  events  that  have 
present  day.  We  hav* 
f  which  embraces  9000, 

lirty  centuries,  is  almost 
it  have  been  transmitted 
'  time  cannot  be  estab- 
the  authenticity  of  the 
in  question  as  spurious ; 
aX  can  guide  our  steps 
history.    The  only  lite- 
ese  remote  and  obscure 
Jews.    Herodotus,  the 
than  a  thousand  years 
ist.    He  had  been  prece- 
lon  the  Phcenician;  but 
and  there  exists  only  a 
y  and  Eusebius. 
...I  years  that  fall  within 
ret  thirty  centuries  may, 
Amidst  the  darkness  of 
le  germs  of  societies,  gov- 
yptians,  the  Israelites,  the 
bylonians,  or  Chaldeans, 
ire  among  the  nations  of 

re  the  firat  who  cultivated 
rsery  of  arts  and  sciences, 
ruide  than  the  stare,  boldly 
vast  extent  of  intercourse 
I.  They  founded  many 
s  in  Africa,  and  Malaga  and 

itterly  unknown  d,uring  the 
hibit  in  the  third  millenary, 
ice.  A  multitude  of  petty 
f  which,  as  Argos,  Athens 
olonies  lirom  Egypt.    The 


Z 


I 


INTMBVCnOR.  W 

Greeks,  in  imitation  of  the  PhoBnicians,  applied  themselves  to 
arU,  navigation,  and  comroeree.  They  established  numerous 
colonies,  not  only  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  but  on  thos^  of 
Italy  and  Sicily.  That  in  lower  Italy  or  Calabria,  was  known 
by  the  name  of  Magna  Orsecia. 

It  was  during  the  second  period  of  ancient  history,  or  in  the 
fourth  millenary,  that  great  and  powerful  monarchies  arose; 
whicii  contributed  to  the  progress  of  arts  and  civilization,  and 
the  perfection  of  society.  These  are  commonly  reckoned  five, 
viz.  the  Egyptian,  the  Assyrian,  the  Persian,  the  Macedonian, 
and  the  Roman ;  all  of  which  successively  established  them- 
selves on  the  ruins  of  each  other. 

The  history  of  the  two  first  monarchies  is  enveloped  in 
mystery  and  doubt.  Of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  nothing  now 
remains  but  their  pyramids,  their  temples,  and  obelisks, — monu- 
ments which  can  only  attest  the  power  and  grandeur  of  the 
ancient  sovereigns  of  Egypt. 

As  to  the  Assyrian  antiouities,  the  c6ntradictions  that  we  find 
between  the  narratives  of  Herodotus  and  Ctesias,  cannot  fail  to 
make  us  reject,  as  fabulous,  the  details  of  the  latter,  respecting 
the  magnificence  of  Ninus,  Semiiamus,  and  Sardanapalus,  the 
supposed  monarchs  of  Assyria  and  Babylon.  Nothing  certain 
is  known  of  this  empire,  or  the  conquests  of  these  kings, 
beyond  what  we  find  recorded  in"  the  annals  of  the  Jews. 
Shalmaneser,  King  of  Assyria,  subdued  the  kingdom  of  Sama- 
ria or  Israel,  about  the  year  of  the  world  3270 ;  and  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, one  of  his  successors,  conquered  that  of  Judah  and 
Jerusalem,  abdkit  the  year  3403. 

The  Persian  monarchy  was  founded  by  Cyrus,  who  put  an 
end  to  the  dominion  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians,  by  taking 
the  city  of  Babylon,  abmt  the  year  of  the  world  3463.  The 
empire,  when  at  its  grei^test  height,  under  Darius  Hystaspes, 
comprehended  all  that  part  cf  Asia  which  stretches  from  the 
Indus  to  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  from  the  Euxine  to  the  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean.  Egypt  in  Africa,  and  Thrace  in  Europe,  v^ere 
subject  to  its  laws.  After  a  duration  of  nearly  two  centuries, 
it  was  finally  destroyed  by  the  Macedonians  in  the  year  3672. 

Greece,  which  was  at  first  divided  into  several  petty  king- 
doms, changed  its  condition  towards  the  commencement  of  the 
fourth  millenary ;  when  its  principal  cities,  till  then  governed 
by  kings;  formed  themselves  into  detached  republics.  An  en- 
thusiasm for  liberty  spread  over  all  Greece,  and  inspired  every 
bosom  with  the  love  of  glory.  Military  bravery,  as  well  as  arts, 
and  talents  of  all  kinds,  were  fostered  and  encouraged  by  public 
game*,  the  principal  of  which  were  the  Olympic.    Two  cities, 


II  aummu 

Atkant  and  Lacedamon,  fixad  upon  thamaelyaa  for  a  tima  tha 
ayaa  of  all  Oraeca.  Solon  wu  lh«  legislator  of  the  former,  and 
LyeurgUF  of  the  latter.  To  these  two  repuUica  all  the  rest  sue* 
cumbea,  either  as  allies,  or  by  right  of  conquest.  Athens  has 
imdered  herself  immortal  by  the  victories  which  she  gained 
over  the  Persians,  at  the  famous  battles  of  Marathon,  Salamis, 
and  Plats ;  fought  a.  m.  3612,  3632,  and  3623. 

The  ascendency  which  these  victories  procured  the  Athani- 
ans  over  the  rest  of  the  Greek  states,  excited  the  jealousy  of 
the  Lacedemonians,  and  became  the  principal  cause  of  the 
famous  civil  war  which  arose  in  3572,  between  these  two  repub- 
lics, and  which  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  Peloponnesian  war. 
This  was  followed  by  various  other  civil  wars ;  and  these  dis- 
asters contributed  to  greatly  exhaust  the  Greeks,  and  to  break 
that  union  which  had  been  the  true  source  of  their  prosperity 
and  their  glory.  Philip,  King  of  Macedon,  had  the  address  to 
turn  these  unhappy  divisions  to  his  own  advantage,  and  soon 
made  himself  master  of  all  Greece.  The  battle  of  Cheronea, 
which  he  gained  over  the  Athenians  about  the  year  of  the 
world  3664,  completed  the  conquest  of  that  country. 

Alexander  the  Great,  son  of  Philip,  afterwards  attacked  the 
Persian  empire,  which  he  utterly  overthrew,  in  consequence  of 
the  three  victories  which  he  gained  over  Darius  Codomannus, 
the  last  of  the  Persian  kings,  at  the  ppssage  of  the  Granicus  in 
3668,  at  Isaus  in  3669,  and  near  Arbela  in  3672. 

The  monarchy  founded  by  Alexander  fell  to  pieces  after  his 
death.  From  its  wreck  were  formed,  among  others,  by  three 
of  his  generals,  the  three  kingdoms  of  Macedon,  Syria  and 
Egypt;  all  of  which  were  conquered  in  succession  by  the  Ro- 
laans,  a.  m.  3835,  3936,  and  3972.  Greece  itself  had  been 
(educed  to  a  Roman  province,  after  the  famous  sack  of  Corinth, 
and  the  destruction  of  the  Achen  league,  a.  m.  3866,  or  144 
years  before  Christ. 

The  empire  of  the  Greeks  was  succeeded  by  that  of  the 
Bomans,  which  is  distinguished  from  all  its  predecessors,  not 
more  by  its  extent  and  duration,  than  by  the  wisdom  with 
which  it  was  administered,  and  the  fine  monuments  of  all  kinds 
which  it  has  transmitted  to  posterity.  The  greatness  of  this  em- 
pire was  not,  however,  the  achievement  of  a  single  conqueror, 
out  the  work  of  ages.  Its  prosperity  must  be  chiefly  ascribed 
to  the  primitive  constitution  of  the  Republic,  which  inspired  the 
Romans  with  the  love  of  liberty,  and  the  spirit  of  patriotism — 
which  animated  Uiem  to  glory  and  perseverance,  and  taught 
theaa  to  despise  dangers  and  death.  Their  religion,  likewiae, 
aarved  aa  %  jtowerful  engine  to  restrain  and  direct  tha  multitud»i 
according  to  the  viewa  and  designs  of  the  irovammeat. 


emselyM  for  a  time  the 
fislator  of  the  former,  and 
repuUics  all  the  rest  sue* 
'  conquest.  Athens  has 
tories  which  she  gained 
M  of  Marathon,  Salamis, 
nd3683. 

es  procured  the  Atheni- 
excited  the  jealousy  of 
principal  cause  of  the 
between  these  two  repub- 
of  the  Peloponnesian  war. 
;ivil  wars ;  and  these  dis- 
the  Greeks,  and  to  break 
ource  of  their  prosperity 
cedon,  had  the  address  to 
>wn  advantage,  and  soon 
The  battle  of  Chnronea, 
IS  about  the  year  of  the 
)f  that  country. 
>,  afterwards  attacked  the 
rthrew,  in  consequence  of 
)ver  Darius  Codomannus, 
mssage  of  the  Granicus  in 
;la  in  3672. 

ier  fell  to  pieces  after  his 
d,  among  others,  by  three 
3  of  Macedon,  Syria  and 
in  succession  by  the  Ro- 
Greece  itself  had  been 
le  famous  sack  of  Corinth, 
eague,  a.  m.  3856,  or  144 

mcceeded  by  that  of  the 
(I  all  its  predecessors,  not 
than  by  the  wisdom  with 
ne  monuments  of  all  kinds 

The  greatness  of  this  em- 
tnt  of  a  single  conqueror, 
r  must  be  chiefly  ascribed 
^public,  which  inspired  the 

the  spirit  of  patriotism — 
perseverance,  and  taught 

Their  religion,  likewiae, 
o  and  direct  the  multitudei 
f  the  iroyemment. 


"T-i?^-;7f 


The  earlier  part  of  the  Roman  histMjr  may  be  divided  mto 
three  periods.  The  first  of  these  represents  Rome  under  the 
government  of  kings ;  from  the  time  of  its  foundation,  about 
the  year  of  the  world  3249,  to  the  expulsion  of  Tarquin  the 
Proud,  and  the  establishment  of  the  Republic,  in  34^.  The 
second  extends  from  the  establishment  of  the  Republic,  in  the 
year  of  Rome  245,  to  the  first  Punic  war,  in  the  year  of  the 
City  490,  and  of  the  world  3738.  The  third  commences  with 
the  first  Punic  war,  and  terminates  at  the  battle  of  Acthiin, 
which  put  an  end  to  the  Republican  government,  and  re-estab- 
lished monarchy  under  Augustus,  in  the  year  of  Rome  723. 

During  the  first  of  these  periods,  the  Romans  had  to  sustain 
incessant  wars  with  their  neighbours,  the  petty  states  of  Italy. 
They  subdued  the  whole  of  that  peninsula  in  course  of  the 
second  period ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  third,  that  they  carried 
their  arms  beyond  their  own  country,  to  conquer  the  greater 
portion  of  the  then  known  world.  The  first  two  periods  of  the 
Roman  history,  are  full  of  obscure  and- uncertain  truditions.  In 
those  remote  ages,  the  Romans  paid  no  attention  to  the  study  of 
letters.  Immersed  entirely  in  the  business  of  war,  th^  had  no 
other  historical  records  than  the  annals  of  their  pontiffs,  which 
perished  in  the  sack  of  Rome,  at  the  time  of  its  invasion  by  the 
Gauls,  in  the  year  of  the  City  365. 

The  most  ancient  of  their  historians  was  Fabius  Pictor,  who 
wrote  his  Annals  in  the  sixth  century  after  the  foundation  of 
Rome,  or  about  the  time  of  the  second  Punic  war.  These 
Annals,  in  which  Fabius  had  consulted  both  tradition  and 
foreign  authors,  are  lost;  and  we  possess  no  information  on 
these  two  periods  of  Roman  history,  except  wiiat  has  been  left 
us  by  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  and  Titus  Livius,  who  both 
wrote  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  and  whose  narratives  often  re- 
semble  a  romance  rather  than  a  true  history. 

The  cultivation  of  letters  and  arts  among  the  Romans,  did 
not,  properly  speaking,  commence  until  the  third  period ;  and 
after  they  had  had  intercourse  with  civilized  nations,  as  the 
Canhaginians  and  Greeks.  It  was  not  until  484  years  after  the 
building  of  the  city,  that  they  struck  their  first  silver  coinage ; 
and  ten  years  afterwards,  they  equipped  their  first  fleet  against 
the  Carthaginians.  It  is  at  this  period,  also,  that  truth  j^gias 
to. dawn  upon  their  history,  and  to  occupy  the  place  of  faUe 
and  tradition.  Besides  their  native  historians,  Titus  Liviits, 
Floras,  and  Velleius  Paterculus,  several  Greek  authors,  as  Po> 
lylnas,  Plutarch,  Appian  of  Alexandria,  Dion  Cassius,  fce.~  (la*^ 
nmiiahed  asefnl  memorials  on  this  period.  The  hiatonr  of 
Palj^ua,  especially,  ia  a  work  of  the  highest  merit     TIm 


^ 


f 


I'M 

V 


If  eiAmt  I. 

ttAiMnum  will  then  find  l«uons  on  politics  and  government, 
uhI  the  ioldier  instructions  in  the  art  of  war. 

A  long  series  of  foreign  wars  put  the  Romans  in  possession 
of  tlM  isles  of  the  Mediterranean,  Spain,  Northern  Africa, 
Egypt,  Gaul,  Illyria,  Macedonia,  Greece,  Thrace,  and  all  Asia, 
as  far  as  the  Euphrates.  The  destruction  of  the  powerful  re- 
public of  Carthage  was  the  grand  cast  of  the  die  that  decided 
the  empire  of  the  world  in  favour  of  the  Romans. 

Gartnage  was  a  colony  which  the  ancient  Phenicians  had 
founded  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  near  the  modern  city  of  Tunis, 
in  the  year  of  the  world  3119,  and  130  before  the  founding  of 
Rome.  In  imitation  of  their  mother  country,  the  Carthaginians 
rendered  themselves .  famous  by  their  merchandise  and  their 
marine.  The  extent  to  which  they  carried  their  commerce,  and 
the  force  necessary  for  its  protection,  rendered  their  arms  every 
where  victorious.  They  gradually  extended  their  conquests 
idong  the  shores  of  Africa,  in  Spain,  and  the  islands  of  the 
Mediterranean. 

The  attempts  which  they  had  made  to  get  possession  of 
Sicily,  was  the  occasion  of  embroiling  them  in  a  war  with  the 
Romans.  For  nearly  two  hundred  years,  Rome  and  Carthage 
disputed  between  them  the  empire  of  the  world ;  and  it  was 
not  until  these  two  mighty  rivals  had,  more  than  once,  made 
each  other  tremble  for  their  independence,  that  the  Carthaginians 
yielded  to  the  yoke  of  the  conqueror.  Their  capital,  after  a 
siege  which  lasted  nearly  three  years,  was  completely  laid  in 
ruins  by  the  famous  Scipio  iEmilianus,  the  scholar  of  Polybius. 
No  monument  of  the  Carthaginians  now  remains  to  point  out 
the  ancient  splendour  of  that  republic.  Their  national  archives, 
and  all  the  literary  treasures  they  contained,  perished  with  the 
city,  or  were  destroyed  by  the  Romans.  The  destruction  Jti 
Carthage  happened  in  the  year  of  Rome  608,  and  of  the  world 
3856,  the  same  year  that  witnessed  th6  sack  of  Corinth. 

The  fall  of  Carthage,  and  more  especially  the  conquest  of 
Greece,  Egypt,  and  the  Asiatic  kingdoms,  occasioned  a  wonder- 
ful revolution  in  the  manners  and  government  of  the  Romans 
The  Hches  of  the  East,  the  arts  and  institutions  of  the  van 
quished  nations,  brought  them  acquainted  with  luxuries  they 
had  never  known,  which  soon  proved  the  fatal  harbingers  of 
Yice.  Their  patriotism  and  love  of  liberty  insensibly  declined, 
aad  became  extinct :  powerful  and  ambitious  citizens  fomented 
inaurrections  and  civil  wars,  which  ended  in  the  subversion  of 
the  republican  government,  and  the  establishment  of  monarchy. 
Two  triumvirates  appeared  in  succession.  The  first  consisted 
of  Pompey,  Casar,  and  Crasaus,  and  \»a  dissolved  in  conse- 


mfMOOOttlM. 


lolitics  and  gowramcnt, 
)f  war. 

le  Romans  in  possestion 
Spain,  Northern  Africa, 
ce,  Thrace,  and  all  Asia, 
tion  of  the  powerful  re- 

of  the  die  that  decided 
he  Romans. 

ancient  Phenicians  had 
le  modern  city  of  Tunis, 
D  before  the  founding  of 
ountry,  the  Carthaginians 
r  merchandise  and  their 
rried  their  commerce,  and 
endered  their  arms  every 
extended  their  conquests 
1,  and  the  islands  of  the 

ide  to  get  possession  of 
I  them  in  a  war  with  the 
ears,  Rome  and  Carthage 
if  the  world;  and  it  was 
d,  more  than  once,  made 
ice,  that  the  Carthaginians 
»r.     Their  capital,  after  a 
8,  was  completely  laid  in 
8,  the  scholar  of  Polybius. 
now  remains  to  point  out 
Their  national  archives, 
itained,  perished  with  the 
lans.     The  destruction  ^f 
tme  608,  and  of  the  world 
hd  sack  of  Corinth, 
especially  the  conquest  of 
loms,  occasioned  a  wonder- 
vernment  of  the  Romans 
id  institutions  of  the  van- 
ainted  with  luxuries  they 
red  the  fatal  harbingers  of 
liberty  insensibly  declined, 
imbitious  citizens  fomented 
ended  in  the  subversion  of 
jstablishment  of  nionarchy. 
esaion.    The  first  consisted 
d  vos  dissolved  in  conse* 


qotBM  of  the  eivil  war  that  arose  amonff  the  triuniTin.    Oi 

having  eoaqnered  Pompey  at  the  batUe  of  Pharsalia,  in  the 
ytar  of  Borne  706,  became  master  of  the  empire,  under  the  title 
of  perpetoal  dictator.  This  new  elevation  of  fortune  he  did 
not  long  enjoy ;  he  was  assassinated  in  the  senate  bv  a  band  of 
conspirators,  at  the  head  of  whom  was  Brutus,  in  me  year  of 
Rome  710,  and  4li  before  the  birth  of  Christ. 

A  second  triumvirate  was  formed  between  Mark  Antony, 
Caear  Octavianus,  and  Lepidus.  Many  thousands  of  illustri- 
ous Romans,  and  among  others  Cicero,  were  at  this  time  pro- 
scribed, and  put  to  death  by  order  of  the  triumvirs.  Jealousy 
having  at  length  disunited  these  new  tyrants,  Octavianus  stripped 
Lepidus  of  his  power,  and  defeated  Mark  Antony  in  the  famous 
naval  battle  which  tookplace  near  the  promontory  of  Actlum, 
in  the  year  of  Rome  723.  Antony  having  been  assassinated  in 
Egypt,  immediately  after  his  defeat,  Cssar  Octavianus  became 
sole  master  of  the  empire,  which  he  afterwards  ruled  with 
sovereign  authority  under  the  name  of  -Augustus. 

At  this  time  the  Roman  empire  comprehended  the  finest 
countries  of  Europe  and.  Asia ;  with  Egypt  and  all  the  northern 
part  of  Africa.  It  was  iMunded  on  the  west  by  the  Rhine  and 
the  Danube,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Euphrates.  The  succesaors 
of  Augustus  added  the  greater  part  of  Britian  to  the  empire. 
Trajan  carried  his  victorious  arms  bej'dnd  the  Danube ;  he  con- 
quered the  Dacians,  who  inhabited  those  countries  known  at 
present  under  the  name  of  Hungary,  Transylvania,  MoldaTia, 
Watachia,  and  Bessarabia.  In  the  East  this  prince  extended  tiie 
limits  of  the  empire  beyond  the  Euphrates,  having  subdoed 
Mesopotamia,  Assyria,  Armenia,  Colchis  and  Iberia,  (or  GSeor- 
gia ;)  but  the  conquests  of  Trajan  were  abandoned  by  his  suc- 
cessors, and  the  empire  again  shrunk  within  the  bounds  pre- 
scribed by  Augustus. 

This  empire,  which  extended  from  north  to  south  nearly  six 
hundred  leagues,  and  more  than  a  thousand  from  east  to  west, 
viz.  from  the  24"  to  the  661°  of  latitude,  comprised  a  total  of 
180,000  square  leagues.  The  population,  during  its  most 
flourishing  state,  may  be  estimated  at  about  120,()<)0,00()r~4 
population  which  equals  that  of  modem  Europe,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Great  Britain,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Russia  and  Turkey. 

The  government  which  had  been  introduced,  was  an  absoliMe 
monarchy,  only  clothed  with  the  forms  of  the  ancient  repu^k. 
Under  the  popular  titles  of  consul,  tribune  of  the  people,  gene- 
ral, grand  pontiff,  censor,  &c.  the  prince  united  in  himself  tj^ 
the  various  attributes  of  supreme  power.  The  senate  indaad 
enjoyed  extensive  prerogatives ;  the  legislative  power,  whieh 

voii.  I.  4 


ppjbi 


'f 


i 


P*'?®*'  .  .-  «»r..truetfld  could  not  insure  ihe  welfire 

SlJSdeTt;  £:  livesTd  foK.  of  the  citizens;  .nd  .^t  h. 

th.  D"«l».  •"''  S".*^  mcampeJ  on  .he  bortei.  of  th«« 

S",;™."  t  ir^;  «^SJ  .ho  I«««  •■?•>  -".i:'";* 

s^i:^»rr±uid^*;io"::•™=.T^^^ 
is?.rpeoVL.l;7{i;™o^^^^^^^^^^^ 

hi»  sons,  without  regard  to  »''\P""';P]\^„ej    ^u  is  true,  this 
Mity  which  his  P«<»f";j"  ^„1S:^^^^^^^  ren;wed 

.iparation  was  not  of  !«"».*^"^'X^  J  finally  divided  the 
;^;;„rds  by  T^eodosms  the  Great   who  n„a.y^      ^  ^^ 

:SZXJS>^r^^^^^^^^^        of  the  empire.    This 


rf 


A;  WM  aftOTWtids  tnnt- 
r  were  whoUv  ei^lMidmatt 
lit  eommana  •  Binneroui 
atbority  of  the  semte  wai 
lunterpoiae  to  dwt  of  the 

Id  not  insure  the  welfare 
ider  princes  at  humane  as 
jan  and  the  Antonines ;  or 
igustus  should  be  respect- 
ito  arbitrary  power,  under 
Nero,  and  Domitian;  and 
I  servile  instrument  in  the 
I  to  facilitate  the  means  of 

on  became  the  fashionable 
igan  to  teach  publicly,  that 
B  people  was  transferred  to 

the  laws ;  that  his  power 
:  the  citizens ;  and  that  he 
wn  patrimony.  These  en- 
tie  instability  of  the  imperial 
,ne,  the  unbridled  license  of 
;rps  of  barbarians  in  their 
the  number  of  causes  that 

empire. 

rst  of  the  emperors  that  em- 
s  established  religion  of  the 
Rome,  the  ancient  residence 
at  Byaantium,  in  330,  which 
inopie.     Anxious  lo^provide 
le  stationed  the  flowor  of  his 
frontiers  on  the  Rhine  and 
e  provinces  and  towns,  the 
ped  on  the  borders  of  these 
id  the  peace  and  tranquillity 
time,  a  new  vigour  into  the 
jreat  mistake  in  giving  the 
livision  of  the  state  between 
ociple  of  unity  and  indivisi- 
held  sacred.     It  is  true,  this 
luance;  but  it  was  renewed 
eat,  who  finally  divided  the 
3  year  395 ;  Arcadius  had  the 
i  part  of  the  empire.    This 


Uttar  eomprthradtd  Italy,  Oaul,  Britain,  Ipain,  Northern  Aflri* 
ea,  Rhatia,  Vindelieia,  Norieum,  Paanonia,  and  lUyria.  It  waa 
during  tha  nign  of  Honoriut,  and  under  the  adminittration  of 
hit  mmitter  Suilicho,  that  the  mamortble  invasion  of  the  barbae 
riant  liappened,  which  was  followed  shortly  after,  by  the  da* 
struction  of  the  Western  Bmpire. 

It  it  with  this  great  event,  which  gave  birth  to  a  variety  of 
new  states  and  kingdoms,  that  the  following  History  of  the  Ravo* 
lutiont  of  Europe  commences.  It  it  divided  into  nine  lectiona 
or  periods  of  time,  according  to  the  successive  changes  which  the 
political  system  of  Europe  experienced  from  the  fifth  to  the 
nineteenth  century. 

In  the  Jirst,  which  extends  to  the  year  800,  the  barbarians, 
who  invaded  the  Western  Empire,  formed  new  states  in  Spain, 
Gaul,  and  Italy;  and  produced  a  complete  revolution  in  tin 

Sovernments,  laws,  manners,  letters,  and  arts  of  Europe.  It  was 
uring  this  period  that  the  Franks  gained  the  ascendency  over 
the  otTier  European  nations ;  that  the'  Popes  laid  the  ground* 
work  of  (heir  secular  power ;  that  Mahomet  founded  a  new  re* 
ligion  in  Asia,  and  an  empire  which  extended  through  Africa 
into  Spain. 

In  the  second  period,  which  extends  from  800  to  962,  a  vast 
empire  was  erected,  and  again  dismembered,  after  enjoying  • 
short-lived  splendour.  From  its  wteck  were  formed  new  king- 
doms, which  have  served  as  the  basis  for  several  states  of  mo- 
dern times.  Others  were  established  by  the  Normans,  Rottiana, 
and  Hungarians. 

In  the  third  period,  which  terminates  with  the  year  1072, 
Germany  became  the  preponderating  power,  and  began  to  de- 
cline, through  the  abuse  of  the  feudal  system.  The  House  of 
Cap<>t  ^ounted  the  throne  of  France  ;  and  the  Normans  achiev- 
ed the  conquest  of  England.  The  Northern  nations,  converted 
to  Christianity,  began  to  itiake  some  figure  in  history :  the  mo- 
narchy of  Russia  became  great  and  powerful ;  while  the  Greek 
empire,  and  that  of  the  Romans,  fell  into  decay. 

During  the  fourth  period,  which  ends  with  the  year  1300,  the 
Roman  Pontiffs  acquired  an  immense  tway.  Thit  it  alto  the 
epoch  of  the  Crusades,  which  had  a  powerful  influence  on  the 
social  and  political  state  of  the  European  nations :  The  dark- 
nett  of  the  middle  agea  began  gradually  to  disappear ;  the  etta- 
blitbment  of  communitiet,  and  the  enfrafichitement  of  the  MtSh 
gave  birth  to  new  ideat  of  liberty.  The  Romaa  juri^7r<deiiee 
was  rettored  from  the  neglect  and  oblivion  into  which  it  had 
fallen,  and  taught  in  the  universitiet :  Italy  was  covered  with  a 
multitade  of  republics,  and  the  kingdom  of  the  two  SiciUeSi  and 


I 


/ 


-(^' 


411  Mumti. 

of  Portttgtl  were  founded :  Tht  N»i»W«»  VJHS^tii^t 
RwkJVS  Mi«na  Chart,  in  Bnftand  •  J^«  Mof*J«  »•  J*  •••« 
fdMd.  by  theifconqufrtfc  •  p©wwftil  Mid  MientW*  Mnpiw. 

Thi^/A  period,  whS?-en!u  .t  the  uldng  »' Con.t.nt,noP»e 
by  tk.Turki  in  14fl8,  irftotMwl  the  decline  of  the  ^f^\ 
i^ction:  Leaning  end  «:ience  mi^e  .ome  P«>C~;' "j 
I™  .  importwu  di«:oTerie.  prepMiJ  the  way  f»'Jp« /[•■•'. 
imptOTemem* :  Commeite  begM  to  lloomh,  end  "»«»y»  »"; 
UiSoone  more  widely:  The  Earopjeen  «.te.  •"""•J,  Jj' 
prawnt  form ;  while  the  Tarlu,  an  Aeiatie  race,  eetabluhed  their 

^"t^M  ^eSVrom  14fi3  to  1648.  i,  the  epoch  of  A.  IJ- 
Ti^lof  the be^es  lettre., and  the  fine  arts  ;  and  of  he  d.ieOY«7 

aZL:  It  U  also  that  of  the  R-fo^^^l""  "^ 'tCdeTov^ 
plbhed  in  Germany ;  the  influence  of  which  has  extended  over 
Hthe  countries  in  the  world.  It  was  likewise  d"""?  »h's 
Mfi^  that  Europe  was  de«»lated  by  religious  wars,  which 
Sitaally  must  hJvc  plunpd  it  again  ,ntp  a  state  oj jmrtar.^rn 
The  peace  of  Wesl^li*  became  the  basis  of  the  political  sjs- 

•Inlhf'JZh  period,  from  1648  to  1713  this  federal  .y^™ 
wu  turned  again^  France,  whose  power  threatened  to  overturn 
S^JJirikulbalance  of  Europe.  The  peace  of  ^»^^^^J^ 
toniK  to  the  ambition  of  its  aspiriog  monarchs,  while  that  of 
m\%  adiusted  the  contending  claims  of  the  ISorth.  , 

The  fiuropian  states,  delivered  from  the  error  of  univem 
JiinMim  benn  to  think  the  establishment  of  it  an  impossibility ; 
JStolSiS^of  the  system  of  political  equinoise,  they  sub- 
•dtnled  in  ite  place  maxims  of  injustice  and  v'olence. 

ThTeSi*  period,  which  comes  down  to  1789.  «  an  epoch 
rf^JiteeM  and  corruption,  during  which  the  do<y'"«-  «' • 
iKSS3  hnpious  ptil osophy  leS  the  way  to  the  downfall  of 
AlMea  and  the  subversion  of  social  order.  . 

^me  consequences  of  this  new  philosophy  bnng  u.  to  the 
JS^riod.lring  which.  Europe  wa.  -l^oV  ^l"*'/., '•^JT 
UoaSd.  The  present  history  terminates  with  the  y«"  ISJJ^ 
wlSfoml  a  nitural  division'in  thi.  revolutionanr  epoch ;  the 
find  iMulu  of  which  can  be  known  only  to  poatenty  J 


lition  wM  MtaUiahad  te 
Th«Moful*i»theeut 
tnd  MteiiMv*  raipira. 
taking  of  Conatantinople 
lecline  of  tbt  Pontifical 
lade  some  proamMi  and 
the  way  for  atill  greatar 
>aritb,  and  extend  its  in- 
an  etates  aiaumed  their 
ktie  race,  cstabliahed  their 

9,  is  the  epoch  of  the  ft- 
irts ;  and  of  the  dieeovery 
nation  of  religion  accom- 

which  ha«  extended  over 
iraa  likewise  during  this 
y  religious  wars,  which 

into  a  state  of  barbarism, 
basis  of  the  political  sys- 

1713,  this  federal  system 
ver  threatened  to  overturn 
he  peace  of  Utrecht  sot 
r  monarchs,  while  that  of 
of  the  North, 
om  the  terror  of  universal 
nent  of  it  an  impossibility ; 
ilitical  equipoise,  they  sub- 
ice  and  violence, 
lown  to  17S9,  is  an  epoch 
which  the  do.trines  of  a 
the  way  to  the  downfall  of 
order. 

hilosophy  bring  us  to  the 
jn»  almost  entirely  roTow- 
linates  with  the  year  181^ 
I  revoltttionarjr  epoch ;  W 
only  to  posterity  ] 


▼iBw: 

REVOLUTIONS  OF  EUROPE. 


oHArram  ii. 

riBioo  I. 

Prom  tht  InvaiUm  of  tM*  Jtommn  Empin  te  th»  Vgttha$ 
Barbarians,  to  the  tm$  of  CharUmagm.    a.  d.  406—800. 

Thi  Roman  empire  had,  for  many  yeara,  been  mdutUy 
tending  towards  its  downfall.  Ita  eneigies  wwe  ezhaaated; 
and  it  required  no  great  efforta  to  Wy  proatrata  that  gigantte 
power  which  had  dmost  lost  iu  atraogth  and  acUvtty.  Tha 
vices  of  the  government,  the  relaxation  of  diaapHne,  tha  aai> 
tnositiea  of  faction,  and  the  miseriea  of  the  people,  all  amwaneed 
the  approaching  ruin  of  the  empire.  Divided  br  mvlaal  jea- 
lousies,  enervated  by  luxury,  and  oppressed  by  despotiam,  tha 
Romans  were  in  no  condition  to  withstand  the  numerous  •^*MnM 
of  barbarians  from  the  North,  who,  unacquainted  with  l«uninr« 
and  despising  danger  and  death,  had  ieanied  to  conquw  m  tha 
ranka  of  the  Imperial  armies.  ...      u 

Several  of  the  Emperors,  guided  by  a  ahort-sighted  pooN, 
had  received  into  their  pay  entire  battaliona  of  foreigjMta)  aM 
to  recompense  their  serf  icies,  had  aniffned  them  aettlenentaw 
the  fronUer  provinces  of  the  empire.  Thus  the  Franks  ^taiMi, 
by  way  of  compensation,  territoriea  in  BeLrie  Gaul;  wbUe  ua»> 
lar  granU  were  made  in  Pannonia  and  in  Thrace,  to  the  VamUa, 
Alana,  Goths,  and  other  barbariana.  Thia  liberality  of  the  Be- 
mans,  which  was  a  true  mark  of  weakneaa,  together  vnth  tha 
vast  numbers  of  these  troops  which  they  emploved  in  their  wan, 
at  length  accustomed  the  barbariana  to  regard  the  omnire  a*  th^ 
prey.  Towards  the  close  of  the  year  406,  the  Vandals,  the 
Buevi,  and  the  Alans,  sounded  the  tocsin  of  that  famous  inta- 
sion  which  accelerated  the  downfall  of  the  Westttm  en^>** 
The  example  of  these  nations  waa  soon  followed  by  the  Vian 

Sths,  the  Burgundians,  the  Alemanns,'  the  Franks,  the  H«aii 
B  Angles,  the  Saxons,  the  Heruls,  the  Oatrogotha*  and  tha 
Lombards.  All  these  nations,  with  the  exception  of  the  Haaa 
nvre  of  German  origin. 

4* 


■ffe^- 


m  ttutm  n. 

Tb>  Vanmu,  it  appeafs,  ware  originaHy  Nttled  in  that  part 
of  northern  Germany  which  lie*  between  the  Elbe  and  the  Via- 
tola.  They  formed  a  temnch  of  the  ancient  Suevi,  as  did  also 
the  Bargondians  and  the  Lombards.  After  the  third  century, 
and  under  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Probus,  we  find  them,  with 
the  Burgtiadians,  engaged  in  warring  against  the  Romans  on 
the  Rhine.  In  the  time  of  Aurelian,  (872)  they  established  them- 
selves in  the  western  part  of  Dacia,  that  is,  in  Transylvania,  and 
a  part  of  modem  Hungary.  Oppressed  in  these  districts  by  the 
Goths,  they  obtained  uom  Constantino  the  Great,  settlements  in 
Pannonia,  on  condition  of  rendering  military  service  to  the 
Romans.  They  remained  in  Pannonia,  until  the  commencement 
of  the  fifth  century,  when  they  set  out  on  their  emigration  to- 
wards  Gaul.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that  they  associated  them- 
selves with  the  Alans,  a  people  originally  from  Mount  Caucasus, 
and  ancient  Scythia;  a  branch  of  which,  settled  in  Sarmatia 
near  the  source  of  the  Borysthenes  or  Dniepr,  had  advanced 
as  far  as  the  Danube,  and  there  made  a  formidable  stand  against 
th«  Ronums.  In  their  passage  through  Germany,  the  Vandals 
and  the  Alans  joined  a  body  of  the  Suevi,  who  also  inhabited 
the  banks  of  the  Danube,  eastward  of  the  powerful  nation  of  the 
Alemanns.  United  in  this  rude  confederacy,  they  entered  Gaul, 
plundering  and  destroying  wherever  they  went.  Mayence, 
Worms,  Spire,  Strasbourg,  and  many  flourishing  cities  of^Gaul, 
wnce  pillaged  by  these  barbarians. 

Thb  Goths,*  the  most  powerful  of  these  destructive  nations, 
began  to  rise  into  notice  m  the  third  century,  after  the  time  of 
the  Emperor  Caracalla.  They  then  inhabited  the  country  be- 
tween  the  Vistula,  the  Dniester,  the  Borysthenes,  and  the  Tanais 
or  Don.  ,'>It  is  not  certain  whether  they  were  originally  .'rom 
dMse  regions,  or  whether,  in  more  remote  times,  they  inhabited 
Scandinavia,  from  which,  according  to  Jomandes,  a  Gothic  au- 
-Ihw,  they  emigrated  at  an  early  period.  It  is  however  certain, 
that  they  were  of  German  extraction ;  and  that,  in  the  third  and 
fovrth  («nturies,  they  made  the  Cnsars  tremble  on  their  thrones. 
The  Emperor  Aurelian  was  compelled  (874)  to  abandon  the  pro- 
vince of  Dacia  to  their  dominion. 

This  nation,  the  first  of  the  German  tribes  that  embraced  the 
Ohristian  religion,'  was  divided,  in  their  ancient  settlements 
beyond  the  Danube,  into  two  principal  branches.  They  who 
iwabited  the  districts  towards  the  east  and  the  Euxine  Sea. 
balween  the  Dniester,  the  Bor^'sthenes,  aiid  the  Tanais,  were 
called  Ostrogoths ;  th-)  Visigoths  were  the  branch  which  extend- 
ed westward,  and  occupied  ancient  Dacia,  and  the  regions  situ- 
between  the  Dniebter,  the  Danube  and  the  Vistula.    At- 


mlly  wttled  in  thatptit 
en  the  Elbe  and  the  Vi»- 
ncient  Suevi,  as  did  also 

AAer  the  third  century, 
'obus,  we  find  them,  wiUi 

against  the  Romans  on 
2)  they  established  them- 
It  is,  in  Transylvania,  and 
d  in  these  districts  by  the 

the  Great,  settlements  in 

military  service  to  the 
,  until  the  commencement 
it  on  their  emigration  to- 
hat  they  associated  them- 
ly  from  Mount  Caucasus, 
lich,  settled  in  Sarmatia 
r  Dnieper,  had  advanced 
i  formidable  stand  against 
A  Germany,  the  Vandals 
tuevi,  who  also  inhabited 
the  powerful  nation  of  the 
ieracy,  they  entered  Gaul, 
■  they  went.  Mayence, 
flourishing  cities  of  Gaul, 

these  destructive  nations, 
century,  after  the  time  of 
inhabited  die  country  be- 
arysthenes,  and  the  Tanais 
they  were  originally  from 
mote  times,  they  inhabited 
to  Jomandes,  a  Gothic  au- 
td.  It  is  however  certain, 
,  and  that,  in  the  third  and 
rs  tremble  on  their  thrones, 
d  (274)  to  abandon  the  pro- 

m  tribes  that  embraced  the 
their  ancient  settlements 
pal  branches.  They  who 
east  and  the  Euxine  Sea. 
nes,  and  the  Tanais,  were 
e  the  branch  which  extend- 
)acia,  and  the  regions  situ- 
ube  and  the  Vistula.    At- 


nnoB  I.  >;  A.  B.  406—800.  Iftf 

tadrad  ia  these  vast  eettntrirf  by  t(e  Huns,  (3!EC0  aome  wen 
Mobjnfated,  and.othen  eoin|ieUed  to  abandon  their  haUtadons. 
A  part  of  the  Visigoths  then  fixed  their  abode  in  Thrace,  in 
Maaia,  and  the  frontiers  of  Dacia,  with  consent  ef  Hm  emperors ; 
who  granted  also  to  the  Ostrogoths  settlemento  in  Fannonia. 
At  length  the  Visigoths,  after  having  twice  ravaged  Italy,  sacked 
and  plundered  Rome,  ended  their  conquests  by  estaUiahing 
themselves  in  Oaul  and  in  Spain.  One  oranch  of  these  Goths 
appean  to  have  been  the  Tharingians,  whom  we  find  in  the 
fiftn  oentury  established  in  the  heart  of  Germany,  where  they 
eieeted  ff'^ery  poweiTul  kingdom. 

Thb  Fsanks  were  probably  a  confederacy  which  the  German 
tribes,  situated  between  the  Rhine,  the  Maine,  the  Weser,  and 
the  Elbe,  had  formed  among  themselves,  in  order  to  mainiain 
their  liberty  and  independence  against  the  Romans.  Tacitus, 
who  wrote  about  the  commencement  of  the  second  centnry,  did 
not  know  them  under  this  new  name,  which  occura  for  the  first 
time  in  the  historians  of  the  third  century.  Among  the  Oeman 
tribes  who  composed  this  association,  vre  find  the  Ghauci,  the 
Sicambri,  the  Chamavi,  the  Cherusci,  the  Bructeri,  the  Catti, 
the  Ampsivarii,  the  Ripuarii,  the  Salii,  ke.*  These  tribes, 
though  combined  for  the  purposes  of  common  defence,  under 
the  general  name  of  Franks,  preserved,  nevertheless,  each  their 
laws  and  form  of  government,  as  well  as  their  particular  chiefs, 
and  the  names  of  their  aboriginal  tribes.  In  the  fourth,  and 
towards  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  the  whole  country 
lying  within  the  Rhine,  the  Weser,  the  Maine,  and  the  Elbe, 
was  called  Francia. 

Another  confederation  of  the  German  tribes,  was  that  of  the 
Albmanns  ;  unknown  also  to  Tacitus.  It  took  its  origin  about 
the  commencement  of  the  third  centnry.  Their  territories  ex> 
tended  between  the  Danube,  the  Rhine,  the  Necker,  the  Main, 
and  the  Lahn.  On  the  east,  in  a  part  of  Franconia  and  modem 
Suabia,  they  had  for  their  neighbours  and  allies  the  Subvi, 
who,  after  having  long  formed  a  distinct  nation,  wera  at  length 
blended  with  the  Alemanns,  and  gave  their  country  the  name 
of  Suabia.  The  Alemanns  rendered  themselves  formidable  to 
the  Romans,  by  their  frequent  inroads  into  Gaul  and  Italy,  in  the 
third  and  fourth  centuries. 

The  Saxons,  unknown  also  to  Tacitus,  began  to  make  a 
figure  in  history  about  the  second  century,  when  we  find  them 
settled  beyond  the  Elbe,  in  modern  Holstein,  having  for  their 
neighbours  the  Anglbs,  or  English,  inhabiting  Sleswick  Proper. 
These  nations  were  early  distinguished  as  pirates  and  free- 
booters ;  and,  while  the  Franks  and  the  Alemanns  spread  them- 


<0  CBAITIB  B. 

mItm  ow  4m  interior  of  Gaul,  tho  Smom  ii^rtodUio  eoMto, 
and  OTAB  «z«mdod  their  incanione  into  Bntnin.  Tm  Fnnks 
liaving  penetrated  into  Gaol  with  their  main  forces,  the  Saxou 
passed  the  Elbe,  and  in  course  of  time,  ocenpied,  or  anited  in 
Alliance  with  them,  the  greater  part  of  ancient  Francia,  which 
took  from  diem  the  name  of  Saxony.  There  they  subdiTided 
themselves  into  three  principal  branches;  the  OitoA«/Miu  to 
the  east,  the  Wett^aUans  to  the  west,  and  the  Angrimiu  or 
Angrwariaiu,  whose  territories  lay  between  the  other  two, 
along  the  Weser,  and  as  far  as  the  confines  of  Hesse. 

The  Hums,  the  most  fierce  and  sanguinary  of  all  the  nations 
which  oTerran  the  Roman  Empire  in  the  fifth  century,  came 
from  the  remote  districte  of  northern  Asia,  which  were  altogether 
nnknown  to  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Bomans.  From  the  de* 
scriptions  which  the  historians  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries 
have  given  us  of  them,  we  are  led  to  believe,  that  they  were 
KftmiirlM  or  Monguls  originally.  The  fame  of  their  arms  had 
begun  to  spread  over  Europe  so  early  as  the  year  376  of  the 
Christian  era.  Having  subdued  the  Alans,  and  crossed  the 
Tanais,  they  subverted  the  powerful  monarchy  of  the  Goths,  and 
gave  the  first  impulse  to  the  great  revolution  of  the  fifth  cea- 
tury,  which  changed  the  face  of  aU  Europe.  The  Eaitem  empire 
first  felt  the  fury  of  these  barbarians,  who  canied  fire  and  sword 
wherever  they  went,  rendered  the  Emperors  their  tributaries, 
, ,  and  then  precipitated  themselves  on  the  West  under  the  conduct 
of  the  famous  Attihu* 

Several  of  the  nations  we  have  now  enumerated,  divided 
among  themselves  the  territories  of  Gaul.  This  province,  one 
of  th»  richest  and  most  impoDant  in  the  Western  empire,  was 
repeatedly  overrun  and  devastated  by  the  barbarous  hordes  of  the 
i&century.  The  Visigoths  were  the  first  that  formed  settle* 
nents  in  it.  On  their  arrival  under  the  command  of  King  Atulf 
•r  Adolphus,  (412,)  they  took  possession  of  the  whole  country 
lying  within  the  Loire,  the  Rhine,  the  Durance,  the  Mediter- 
nntfan,  and  the  Alps.  ToiriousO  became  their  cqiital,  and  the 
residence  of  their  kings.  .  .    n   * 

Thb  Borgondulns,  a  people,  it  would  appear,  oriffinallv  from 
the  countries  situated  between  the  Oder  and  the  Vistula,  fol* 
kiwbd  nearly  in  the  track  of  the  Visigoths ;  as  we  find  thein, 
•bout  the  year  413,  established  on  the  Upper  Bhine  and  in 
Swttcerland.  After  the  dissolution  of  the  empire,  they  suc- 
ceeded in  estailisbing  themselves  in  those  parts  of  Gaul,  known 
by  the  names  of  the  Sequa^ois,  Lyonnois,  Vieunois  and  Nar- 
bonnois,  viz.  in  those  distriew  which  formed,  in  course  of  time, 
the  two  Burgundies,  the  provinces  of  Lyonnois,  Danphiny  and 


InliMtad  ths  eoMtfl, 
to  Britun.  The  Fnnlu 
r  main  foicM,  th*  Saxoiu 

),  oceapifld,  or  nnited  in 

'  nnciont  rnnciat  which 
Then  they  subdiTided 

hes;  the  Oi^MUau  to 
•t,  and  the  Angrunu  ot 

between  the  other  two, 
nfines  of  Hesse, 
gninaiy  of  all  the  nations 
n  the  fifth  century,  came 
jia,  which  were  altosether 

Romans.  From  the  de* 
I  fifth  and  sixth  centuries 
o  believe,  that  they  were 
he  fame  of  their  arms  had 
ly  as  the  year  376  of  the 
9  Alans,  and  crossed  the 
lonarchy  of  the  Ooths,  and 
vvolution  of  the  fifth  cen- 
irope.  The  Eastern  empire 
nrho  carried  fire  and  sword 
imperors  their  tributaries, 
he  West  under  the  conduct 

now  ennmeraledt  divided 
Qaul.  This  province,  one 
1  the  Western  empire,  was 
the  barbarous  hordes  of  the 
the  first  that  formed  settle* 
the  command  of  King  Atulf 
ision  of  the  whole  country 
ihe  Durance,  the  Mediter- 
came  their  cqiital,  and  the 

luld  appear,  orieinallv  from 
Oder  and  the  Vistula,  foU 
isigoths ;  as  we  find  tbeni, 
the  Upper  Rhine  and  in 
I  of  the  empire,  they  sue* 
those'  parts  of  Gaul,  known 
fonnois,  Viennois  and  Nar* 
I  formed,  in  course  of  lime, 
>f  Lyonnois,  Dauphiny  and 


mwDi.   A. ».  406— 800.  H 

PrtTwee  on  this  skU  <tf  the  Daianee,  Savoy,  the  Fttys  de  Vaod, 
the  Valais  and  Switnrland.*  These  countries  then  assnned 
the  name  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Borgundians. 

Ths  Ar.BMAi*M  and  the  Svsvi  became  flourishinff  nations  on 
die  hanks  of  the  Upper  Rhine  and  the  Danube.  They  invaded 
those  countries  in  Gaul,  or  the  Gtrmania  Prima  of  the  Romans, 
known  since  under  the  names  of  Alsace,  the  Palatinate,  Hay* 
ence,  kc ;  and  extended  their  conquests  also  over  a  consideraue 
part  of  Rhetm  and  Vindelicia. 

At  length  the  Franks,  having  been  repulsed  in  different  ren- 
counters by  the  Romans,  a^n  paswd  tne  Rhine  (430,)  under 
the  conduct  of  Clodion  their  chief;  made  themselves  masters 
of  the  greater  part  of  Belgic  Gaul,  took  possession  of  Toumay, 
Cambray  and  Amiens ;  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  the  new 
kingdom  of  France  in  Ghiul.  The  Romans,  however,  still  main- 
tained their  authority  in  the  interior  of  that  province,  and  the 
brave  JEt'iaa  their  general  made  head  against  all  those  hordes 
of  barbarians  who  disputed  with  him  the  dominion  of  GauL 

It  was  at  this  crisis  that  the  Huns  made  their  appearance  on 
the  theatre  of  war.  The  fierce  Attila,  a  man  of  great  military 
talents,  after  having  overthrown  various  states,  conquered  Pan* 
nonia,  and  different  provinces  of  the  Eastern  empire  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Danube,  undertook  his  famous  expedition  into  Gaul. 
Marching  along  the  Danube  from  Fannoi#,  at  the  head  of  an 
innumerable  army,'  he  passed  the  Rhine  near  the  Lake  of  Con- 
stance, pillaged  and  ravaged  several  places,  and  spread  the  terror 
of  his  arms  over  all  Gaiu.  The  Frauks  and  the  Visigoths  united 
their  forces  with  those  of  the  Roman  General,  to  arrest  the 
progress  of  the  barbarian.  A  bloody  and  obstinate  encounter 
took  place  (461,)  on  the  plains  of  Chalons-sur*Marne,  or  Mery* 
snr-Seine,  according  to  others.  Thierry,  King  of  the  Visigoths, 
and  more  than  a  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  men,  perished  on 
the  field  of  battle.  Night  separated  the  combatants ;  uidAttibh 
who  found  his  troops  too  much  exhausted  to  (ienew  the  combat, 
raaolved  to  retrea'  The  following  year  he  made  a  descent 
on  Italy,  and  committed  great  devastations.  This  proved  his 
I«t  ejqNidition ;  for  he  cued  suddenly  on  bis  return,  and  the 
monarohy  of  the  Huns  expired  with  him. 

The  defeat  of  the  Huns  did  not  re-establish  the  shattered  and 
roinons  affiurs  of  the  Romans  in  Gaul.  The  Saliap  Franin,* 
nadir  their  kings,  Meroveus  and  Childeric  I.,  the  sucoessera  <Mf 
Clodion,  extended  their  conquesia  more  and  more ;  till  at  langUi 
Clevja,  son  of  Childeric  I.,  pa%  ««  and  to  the  dominion  oT  toe 
Bouaas  fai  tlMit  conntrfr,  by  the  vietoly  whieh  he  gained  in  488, 
at  Sdiaoiia,OTcr  SyafriaajthaHstof  the  Roman  feneiahK  «^ 


fl  oiArriBii. 

««l«falirol»nheartinconMqaenc«pfAMde«Brt.  .TheAl*. 
Bums  mfterwMtU  h«»ing  dispated  with  him  the  empwre  of  the 
Oaub,  he  jouted  them  completely  (496.)  et  the  fcmoue  betUe  of 
ToUrimc  or  Zulpich  ;•  seiied  their  estates,  bnd  soon  after  em- 
hraeed  Christianity.  Emboldened  by  his  new  cieed,  and  bwJked 
by  the  orthodox  bishops,  he  attacked  the  V'«?«^.  w^'  w*"* 
of  the  heieUcal  sect  of  Anus,  defeated  and  lulled  t^  king, 
Alaric  II.,  in  the  plains  of  VougW,  near  Poitiers,  («I7,)  and 
■tripped  them  of  all  their  possessions  between  the  Loire  and  the 
Pyrenees.-  Gaul  became  thus,  by  degrees,  the  yndiBputed 
possession  of  the  Franks.  The  descendants  of  CIotis  added  to 
their  conquests  the  kingdom  of  the  Burgundians  (634,)  which 
they  totally  overthrew.  •    .t    •  .    • 

These  same  princes  increased  their  possessions  in  tlie  interior 
of  Germany,  by  the  destruction  of  the  powerful  kinffdom  of  the 
Thuringians  (631,)  comprising  those  vast  countries  between  the 
Werra,lhe  Aller,  the  Elbe,  the  Saal,  the  Mulda,  and  the  Danube ; 
and  which  are  now  known  under  the  names  of  o«ony.  1  bu- 
ringia,  Franconia,  the  Upper  Palatinate,"  &c.  This  kingdom 
they  divided  with  their  allies  the  Saxons,  who  obtained  the  nor 
thern  part  of  it,  situated  between  the  Unsirut  and  the  S>aal. 

While  the  Visigoths,  the  Burgundians,  the  Franks  and  the 
Alemanns,  were  disputing  with  each  other  the  conquest  of  Uaul, 
the  Vandals,  the  Suevi,  and  the  Alans,  turned  their  ambitious 
views  towards  Spain.  After  having  settled  some  yean  in  Gaul, 
these  tribes  passed  the  Pyrenees  (409.)  to  establish  themselves 
in  the  most  fertile  regions  of  Spain.  The  Vandals  seized  B«. 
tica,  and  a  part  of  Gallicia  ;  the  Suevi  seized  the  rest  of  Gal- 
Ucia;  while  the  Alans  look  possession  of  Lusitania,  and  the 
province  of  Carthagena.  The  /^^^^^^^"^li^^^'Vr^.ll 
the  sway  of  Gonderic,  King  of  the  Vandals  (420.)  while  the 
Suevi  preserved  their  native  princes,  who  reigned  in  UaOicia 
and  iJsitania ;  this  latter  province  having  ^n  abandoned  by 
the  Vandsls,  (427,)  when  they  passed  into  Africa. 

Meanwhile  new  conquerors  liegan  »<>  make  their  appemnce 
in  Spain.  The  Visigoths,  pressed  by  the  K«>"?«« '^  O"]' 
took  the  resolution  of  carrying  their  arms  beyond  the  Fy»nee». 

Under  the  conduct  of  their  Kng,  ^^^^""^.^y^^^  ZJ^. 
■elves  masters  of  the  city  of  Barcelona  (in  416.)  Euric,  one  of 
L  .uccessors  of  this  pAnce,  took  f«».»«^«.K»3«i*^M 
that  yet  remained  of  their  possessions  m  Spam ;  and  heovxgAd, 
another  of  their  kings,  completwl  the  conquest  of  eU  that  coun- 
try  (684,)  by  reducing  the  kingdom  of  the  Suevi.  The  mo- 
niXof  thi  VUigotfe,  which  in  iu  flourishing  .tate  eompnsed. 
b^  the  coat^ent  of  Spain,  Septimaniaor  Ungomloc  m 


P 


iofthiad«fe«t.  The  Ale* 
th  him  the  empiire  of  the 
16,)  at  the  tutnavm  battle  of 
ales,  und  toon  after  em* 
his  new  creed,  and  baciked 
[  the  Visigoths,  who  were 
ed  and  killed  their  king, 
near  Poitiers,  (607,)  and 
between  the  Loire  and  the 
degrees,  the  undisputed 
endants  of  CIotis  added  to 
Burgundians  (634.)  which 

'  possessions  in  the  interior 
i  powerful  kingdom  of  the 
vast  countries  hetween  the 
le  Mulda,  and  the  Danube ; 
e  names  of  Saxony,  Thu- 
late,"  &c.     This  kingdom 
tons,  who  obtained  the  nor 
Unstrut  and  the  Saal. 
iians,  the  Franks  and  the 
other  the  conquest  of  Gaul, 
tns,  turned  their  ambitious 
settled  some  years  in  Chiul, 
19,)  to  establish  themselves 
The  Vandals  seized  B<b* 
Bvi  seized  the  rest  of  Gal* 
sion  of  Lusitania,  and  the 
IS  afterwards  submitted  to 
I  Vandals  (420.)  while  the 
is,  who  reigned  in  Gatlicia 
having  been  abandoned  hj 
<i  into  Africa, 
n  to  make  their  appearance 
[  by  the  Bomans  m  Oaul, 
arms  beyond  the  Pyrenees. 
Iidolphus,  they  made  them* 
Dna[in415.)   Euric,  oneof 
from  the  Romans  (472)  all 
ns  in  Spain ;  and  Leovigild, 
le  conquest  of  all  that  coun* 
m  of  the  Suevi.    The  mo* 
flourishing  sute  comprised, 
eptunania  or  Languedoc  in 


nuoD  I.    A.  0. 406—800.  9 

GmI.  and  IftaritaDia  Tingitana  in  Africa,  maintained  Ha  aist* 
ence  until  the  commencement  of  the  eighth  century;  when,  a« 
we  shall  aftexwards  see,  it  was  Bnalfy  overthrown  by  t^e  Arabs. 

Northern  Africa,  one  of  the  finest  possessions  of  the  Romans, 
tna  wrested  from  them  by  the  Vandals.  Count  Boniface,  who 
had  the  government  of  that  country,  having  been  falsely  accused 
at  the  court  of  the  Emperor  Vulentininn  111.,  and  believing  him* 
self  ruined  in  the  esteem  of  that  prince,  invited  the  Vandals  over 
to  Africa;  proposing  to  them  me  surrender  of  the  provinces 
intrusted  to  his  command.  Genseric  was  at  that  time  king  of 
the  Vandals.  The  preponderance  which  the  Visigoths  had  ac* 
quired  in  Spain,  induced  that  prince  to  accept  the  offer  of  the 
Roman  General ;  he  embarked  at  the  port  of  Andalusia,  (427,) 
and  passed  with  the  Vandals  and  the  Alans  into  Africa.  Mean* 
time,  Boniface  having  made  up  matters  amicably  with  the  Inipe- 
rial  court,  wished  to  retract  the  engagements  which  he  lud 
made  with  the  Vandals.  Genseric  nevertheless  persisted  ti  his 
enterprise.  He  carried  on  a  long  and  obstinate  war  with  the 
Romans;  the  result  of  which  turned  to  the  advantage  of  the 
barbarians.  Genseric  conauered  in  succession  all  that  part  of 
Africa  pertaining  to  the  Western  empire,  from  the  Straito  of 
Cadiz  as  far  as  Cyrenaica,  which  was  dependent  on  the  empire 
of  the  East.  He  subdued  likewise  the  Balearic  Isles,  with 
Sordinia,  Corsica  and  a  part  of  Sicily. 

The  writers  of  that  age  who  speak  of  this  invasion,  agree  in 
painting,  in  the  most  lively  colours,  the  horrors  with  which  it 
was  accompanied.  It  appears  that  Genseric,  whose  whole  sub- 
jects, including  old  men  and  slaves,  d>d  not  exceed  eighty  thou- 
■and  persons,  being  resolved  to  maintain  his  authority  by  terror, 
caused,  for  this  purposes  a  general  massacre  to  be  made  of  the 
ancient  inhabitants  of  Africa.  To  these  political  severities  were 
ad^d  others  on  the  score  of  religion ;  being  devoted  with  all 
his  subjects  to  the  Arian  heresy,  he  as  well  as  his  successors 
became  the  constant  and  implacable  persecutors  of  the  oAodox 
Christians. 

This  prince  signalized  himself  by  his  maritime  exploits,  and 
hy  the  piracies  which  he  committed  on  the  coasts  of  Italy  and 
the  whole  Roman  empire.  Encouraged,  as  is  supposed,  by  the 
Empress  Eudoxia,  who  wished  to  avenge  the  death  of  her  bus* 
band  Valeutinian  III.,  he  undertook  an  exjpedition  into  Itoly, 

(465,)  in  which  he  made  himself  master  of  Rome.  The  city 
was  pillaged  during  fifteen  days  by  the  Vandals,  spoiled  of  all 
ito  riches  and  iu  finest  monuments.  Innumerable  statues,  orna- 
ments of  temples,  and  the  gilded  cupola  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter 

CapitolinuB,  were  removed  in  oniar  to  be  transported  to  Aficica; 


tgm^-' 


I 


tomdMr  witk  away  thoaiuds  of  iUustiioiu  en^.  A  Teml 
bttddl  with  th*  moit  pftcioof  monammu  of  Room,  periahcd 

*"  TliiTOSiin  of  the  Vwiddt  in  Africa  luted  about  a  hundred 
Man.  Their  kingdom  was  destroyed  by  the  Emperw  Justinian, 
WhTieunited  AfSca  to  the  empire  of  the  E„t.  GihrnerjAe 
lastkinir  of  the  VandaU,  was  conquered  by  Behsarius,  (fi34,) 
and  coiSucted  by  him  in  triumph  to  Constantinople. 

Britain,  inaccessible  by  ite  situation  to  most  of  the  invaders 
ihat  owrran  the  Western  empire,  was  infested,  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury,  by  the  northern  inhabitants  of  that  u^and.— the  free  Bntons, 
bSWby  the  name  of  Caledonians  or  Picts,  and  ScoU.     TJe 
Eomansliaving  withdrawn  their  legions  from  the  island  (446.) 
to  employ  them  in  Gaul,  the  Britons,  abandoned  to  their  own 
■trength,  thought  proper  to  elect  a  king  of  their  own  nation, 
namAvortigern;  but  finding  themselves  still  too  weak  to  resist 
the  incursions  of  the  Picte  and  Scots,  who,  breaking  over  the 
wall  of  Severus,  pillaged  and  laid  waste  the  Roman  province, 
thev  took  the  imprudent  resolution  of  caUing  m  to  their  succour 
the  Angles,  Saxons,  and  Jutlanders,  who  were  already  dis- 
tinffuished  for  their  maritime  incursions.     A  body  of  these  An- 
ri<^Saxons  arrived  in  Britain  (460,)  in  the  first  year  of  the  reign 
of  the  Emperor  Mercian,  under  the  command  of  Hengist  and 
Horsa.    From  being  friends  and  allies,  they  soon  became  ene- 
nies  of  the  Britons ;  and  ended  by  establishing  their  own  do- 
'  ninion  in  the  island.     The  native  islanders,  after  a  protracted 
■truffffle.  were  driven  into  the  province  of  Wales,  where  they 
aaeeeeded  in  maintaining  their  independence  against  their  new 
conquerors.     A  number  of  these  fugiUve  Briton8,^to  escape 
from  the  yoke  of  the  invaders,  took  refuge  in  Gaul.    There 
Ihey  were  received  by  the  Franks  into  Armonca  and  part  of  Ly- 
MiBois,  to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  Brittaiy. 

The  Anfflo-Saxons  founded  successively  seven  petty  king- 
domi^  Britain,  viz.  Kent,  Sussex.  Wessex,  Essex,  Northum- 
berland, East  Anglia,  and  Mercia.  Each  of  these  kingdoms 
had  severally  their  own  kings ;  but  they  were  all  united  in  a 
political  association,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Heptarchy. 
One  of  the  seven  kings  was  the  common  chief  of  the  confede- 
racv;  and  there  was  a  general  convention  of  the  whole,  called 
mttenagemot,  or  the  assembly  of  the  wise  men.  Each  king- 
dom WM  likewise  governed  by  its  own  laws,  and  had  its  sepa- 
nte  assemblies,  whose  power  limited  *he  royal  anthonty. 
This  federal  system  continued  till  the  ninth  centunr,  ^^  ''B: 
belt  the  Great  succeeded  in  abolishing  the  Heptarchy  (827,)  and 
raised  himself  to  be  King  over  all  England. 


""0^ 


xiooa  eapUtn.    A  v«ssel 
aento  of  Rome,  perished 

iea  iMted  about  a  hundred 
by  ^e  Emperor  Justiniwn, 
r  the  East.    Gilimer,  the 
sred  by  Belisarius,  (634,) 
iiJonstantinople. 
t  to  most  of  the  invaders 
;  infested,  in  the  fifth  cen- 
t  island, — the  free  Britons, 
r  Picts,  and  Scots.     The 
ma  from  the  island  (446,) 
,  abandoned  to  their  own 
ling  of  their  own  nation, 
Ives  still  too  weak  to  resist 
,  who,  breaking  over  the 
tste  the  Roman  province, 
'  calling  in  to  their  succour 
I,  who  were  already  dis- 
ins.     A  body  of  these  An- 
i  the  first  year  of  the  reign 
command  of  Hengist  and 
S3,  they  soon  became  ene- 
istablishing  their  own  do- 
slanders,  after  a  protracted 
nee  of  Wales,  where  they 
lendence  against  their  new 
iigitive  Briton8,s,to  escape 
k  refuge  in  Gaul.     There 
,0  Armorica  and  part  of  Ly- 
i  of  Brittairy. 

jssively  seven  petty  king- 
Wessex,  Essex,  Northum- 
Each  of  these  kingdoms 
,  they  were  all  united  in  a 
)  name  of  the  Heptarchy, 
lunon  chief  of  the  confede- 
ention  of  the  whole,  called 
he  wise  men.  Each  king- 
wn  laws,  and  had  its  sepa- 
aited  the  royal  authority, 
le  ninth  century,  when  Eg- 
ng  the  Heptarchy  (827,)  and 
Sngland. 


miosi.    A.  0. 406— 800.  40 

In  the  midst  of  this  general  overthrow,  there  were  still  to  be 
in  Italy  the  phantoms  of  the  Roman  emperors,  feebly  sop* 
porting  m  dignity  which  had  long  since  lost  iu  splendour.  ThM 
fine  country  had  been  desolated  by  the  Visigoths,  the  Huns, 
and  the  Vandals,  in  succession,  without  becomrag  the  fixed  re- 
sidence of  anv  one  of  these  nations.  The  conquest  of  that  an* 
cient  seat  of  the  first  empire  in  the  world,  was  reserved  for  the 
Heruls  and  the  Rugians.  For  a  long  time,  these  German  na* 
tions,  who  are  aenerally  supposed  to  have  emi^ated  from  the 
consu  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  had  been  approachmg  towards  the 
Danube.  They  served  as  auxiliaries  to  the  Romans  in  Italy, 
after  the  example  of  various  other  tribes  of  their  countrymen. 
Being  resolved  to  usurp  the  dominion  of  that  country,  Uwv 
chose  for  their  king  Odoacer,  under  whose  conduct  they  seized 
Ravenna  and  Rome,  dethroned  Romulus  Momyllus  Augusto- 
lus,  the  last  of  the  Roman  Emperors  (476,)  and  put  an  entin 
end  to  the  empire  of  the  West. 

The  Heruls  did  not  enjoy  these  conquests  more  than  seven- 
teen years,  when  they  were  deprived  of  them  in  their  tuTn  fay 
the  Ostrogoths.  This  nation  then  occupied  those  extensive 
countries  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  in  Pannonia,  DTy- 
ria,  and  Thrace,  within  the  limits  of  the  Eastern  empire.  They 
had  rendered  themselves  formidable  to  the  Romans  in  that 
quarter,  by  their  frequent  incursioAs  into  the  very  heart  of  the 
empire.    The  Emperor  Zeno,  in  order  to  withdraw  these  dan- 

¥>rous  neighbours  from  his  frontiers,  encouraged  their  Icing 
heodoric,  as  is  alleged,  to  undertake  the  conquest  of  Itaqf 
firom  the  Heruls.  This  prince  immediately  penetrated  into  toe 
country ;  fee  defeated  the  Heruls  in  several  actions ;  and  at 
length  forced  Odoacer  to  shut  himself  up  in  the  city  of  Ravenna 
{m,)  where,  after  a  sieffe  of  three  years,  he  fell  into  the  hands  (^ 
the  conqueror,  who  deprived  him  at  once  of  his  throne  aAd  bis  lilik 

Theodoric  deserves  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  other  hav* 
faarous  kings  of  the  fifth  century.  Educated  at  the  court  of 
Constantinople,  where  he  passed  the  years  of  his  youth,  he  had 
learned  to  establish  his  authority  by  the  equity  of  his  lawk, 
and  the  wisdom  Of  his  administrations.  He  ruled  an  empiM 
which,  besides  Ital^i  embraced  a  great  part  of  Pannonia,  Rh«h< 
Noricum,  and  lilyria. 

This  monarchy,  formidable  as  it  was,  did  not  exist  beyond 
the  space  of  sixty  years :  after  a  sanguinary  warfare  of  ehAf 
teen  years,  it  was  totally  subverted  bv  the  Greeks.  The  Emp 
peror  Justinian  employed  his  ^nerals,  Belisarius  '*  and  Nar* 
ses,  in  recorering  Italy  and  Sicily  firom  the  hands  of  the  God|i. 
This  nation  defended  their  possessions  with  determined  olel|* 


I. 

I' 


10  aurmts. 

«wy.    Encouraged  by  Toiita.  ^^^^['^i^f^^^'Si  wS 

the  UOIDS.     *?"'"'".    --«,  V    _j  jje^  of  ihe  wounds  which 

--^  .inm      His  dominions  passed  inlo  the  hands  of  the  ureeKs, 
and  slain,     ms  <»°'";"v""''  >™:    f  BUetia  and  Noricum  which 

A  new  reTolulion  hapl)«ned  m  Il.ly,  (««8,)  by  .'M  '»"■  ™ 
si  ptStoS)  after  se«r.l  «me.  ch".g.nj  •l«".>'»*'- 

iSrli'l,'"  u"rr'oSlprtCor53S'l°  *.y  began,  .kei. 
Sf..  ir  IhT^LoS  St  tfeic  King  Alboin,  i.ho,  wttbout 

eomiDg  lu  icji'  „„««K-,  nf  cities  and  provinces.    ravWi 

Wdes  Unner  Italy,  known  more  especialiy  by »"«  "»^' |" 

K«be.  now  extended  their  territories  »«y«»J  ^^f "  "'^J 
t£  ^'mitive  name,  of  tho^  "•^-"'l';^*^^^^!"^^^ 
4to  VWivion.  and  were  lepUiced ^ those  «?. °2,;';jJ,£^ 
CMfedeiatMiu,  vi«.  the  Franka,  Saxons,  Unsians,  akomuu^ 


r  their  kst  kings,  they 
It  the  Greeks,  and  with 
his  war  thai  the  city  of 
ih  (617,)  dismantled  by 
ete  defeat  at  the  foot  of 
ted  of  the  wounds  which 
ccessor  Teias  was  by  no 

In  a  bloody  battle  which 
563,)  he  was  vanquished 
,  the  hands  of  the  Greeks, 
itia  and  Noricum  which 
ring  the  war  between  the 
lossession  of  the  Fririks. ' 
y,  (668,)  by  the  invasion 

originally  inhabited  the 
Ibe,  and  formed  a  branch 
It  length  fixed  themselves 
es  changing  their  abode. 
Asiatic  people,  against  the 
lominion  in  ancient  Dacia, 
^his  stale  was  soon  over- 
iwo  nations,  and  the  whole 
5)  under  the  dominion  of 
ndoned  to  them  their  pos- 
quest  of  new  settlements 
568  that  they  began  their 
:ing  Alboin,  who,  without 
Ireeks,  took  from  them,  m 
sa  and  provinces.    Pavia, 
h  care,  was  the  only  town 
stance;  and  it  did  not  sur- 
ra, in  872.    The  Lombard 
heir  new  dominions,  which, 
especially  by  the  name  of 
isiderable  part  of  the  middle 
irobards  gradually  wrested 

I  iuat  now  given  a  sommary 
ipe ;  but  it  had  a  more  par- 
clent  Germany.  The  Ger. 
ries  were  the  Rhine  and  the 
tories  beyond  these  »>▼«"; 
ns,  recorded  by  Tacitus,  fell 
r  those  of  five  or  six  grana 
uons,  Frisians,  Alemanns, 


ratioD  I.    A.  D.  406— -800.  A 

Suabians,  and  Bavarians,'*  which  embraced  all  the  regions  9§t 
terwards  comprehended  under  the  name  of  Germany. 

The  Alemanns,  and  their  neighbours  the  Suabians,  oecupiad* 
along  with  the  Bavarians,  the  greater  part  of  what  is  called 
Upper  Germany,  on  both  sides  of  the  Danube  as  far  as  the  Alpa. 
The  Franks,  masters  of  a  powerful  monarchy  in  Gaul,  preserved, 
under  their  immediate  dominion  beyond  the  Rhine,  a  piurt  of 
ancient  France,  together  with  the  territories  of  which  they  had 
deprived  the  Alemanns"  and  the  Thuringians.  In  short,  in 
all  Lower  Germany,  no  other  names  were  to  be  found  than 
those  of  the  Thuringians,  Saxons,  and  Frisians ;  und  as  to  the 
eastern  part,  situated  beyond  the  Saal  and  the  Elbe,  as  it  had 
been  deserted  of  inhabitants  by  the  frequent  emigrations  of  the 
German  tribes,  and  by  the  total  destruction  of  the  kingdom  of 
the  Thuringians,  it  was  seized  in  turn  by  the  Slavi,  or  Slavo- 
nians, a  race  distinguished  from  the  Germans  by  their  language 
and  their  manners. 

This  nation,  different  colonies  of  which  still  occupy  a  mat 
part  of  Europe,  did  not  begin  to  figure  in  history  until  the 
fourth  century  of  the  Christian  era.  Jornandcs,  a  Gothic  writer 
of  the  sixth  century,  is  the  first  author  who  mentions  theoi. 
He  calls  them  Slact,  or  Slacina  ;  and  distinguishes  them  into 
three  principal  branches,  the  Venedi,  the  Slavi,  and  the  Antes, 
whose  numerous  tribes  occupied  the  vast  countries  on  the  north 
of  the  Euxine  Sea,  between  the  Vistula,  the  Nicster,  the  Nie> 
per,  &c.  It  was  after  the  commencement  of  the  sixth  centUfT 
that  theHe  nations  emigrated  from  their  ancient  habitations,  and 
spread  themaelves  over  the  east  and  south  of  Europe.  On  the 
one  side,  they  extended  their  colonies  as  far  as  the  Elbe  and 
the  Saal ;  on  the  other,  they  crossed  the  Danube,  and  penetnr 
ted  into  Noricum,  Pannonia,  and  Illyria;  occupying  all  those 
countries  known  at  this  day  under  the  names  of  Hungary, 
Sclavonia,  Servia,  Bosnia,  Cfroatia,  Dalmatia,  Carniola,  Carina 
thia,  Stiria,  and  the  march  of  the  Venedi.  The  history  of  the 
sixth  century,  present'  nothing  more  memorable  than  the  bloody 
wars  wiiich  the  emperors  of  the  East  had  to  maintain  againrt 
the  Slavians  of  the  Danube. 

Those  colonies  of  them  who  first  distinguished  themaclvea 
on  the  Elbe,  the  Havel,  the  Oder,  and  in  the  countries  situated 
to  the  north  of  the  Danube,  were  the  Czechi,  or  Slavi  of  B^ 
hernia ;  the  Surabians  inhabiting  both  sides  of  the  Elbe,  be- 
tween the  Saal  and  the  Oder,  in  the  countries  now  known  ondw 
the  names  of  Misnia,  Saxony,  Anhalt  and  Lower  Lusace ;  the 
Wilzians,  or  Welatabes,  and  the  Abotrites,  spread  ever  Biai^ 
denburg,  Fomerania,  and  Mecklenburg  proper ;  and,  lastly,  the 


Mi 


W 


m 


H 


I 


oiArm  o. 


T 


MmTi,  or  MowTiwM.  •etiled  in  MoraTk,  and  in  a  part  of  mo- 
dam  Hungary.  We  find,  in  the  eefenth  century,  a  cliief  named 
SSnoTwh^rJled  ofer  many  of  these  nations.  He  fought  .uc 
SSSlly  iSnst  the  armies'of  King  Dagobert.  l\»;^TPonei 
Sat  this^mn  was  a  Frank  merchant,  whom  several  of  the  Sla- 
vian  tribes  bad  elected  as  their  chief. 

There  is  one  thing  which,  at  this  period,  ouriit  abore  al   to 
fix  our  attention,  and  that  is  the  influence  whicTi  the  revolution 
of  the  fifth  century  had  on  the  governments,  laws,  mannera, 
•eiences.  and  arts  of  Europe.    The  German  tr.bes,  in  estabrish- 
SHhrmsXtin  the  proves  of  the  We'tem  empire  .nlro- 
d?ced  along  with  them  the  poliiicol  institutions  by  which  they 
£3  been  governed  in  their  native  country.     The  governments 
of  ancient  Germany  were  a  kind  of  '!»>""y^^«™«"""r' ""J" 
gMierals  or  chiefs,  with  the  prerogatives  of  kings.     AU  matters 
S  importance  were  decided  in  their  general  assemblies,  com- 
poaad  of  freemen,  having  the  privilege  of  carrying  «""».«"« 
l^g  to  war."    The  succession  to  the  throne  was  not  heredi- 
Sn^?  and  though  it  became  so  in  fact  in  most  of  the  new  Gentian 
!uL.  still,  on  the  accession  of  their  princes,  they  were  atten- 
STIi  preserve  the  ancient  forms,  whfch  evinced  .he  primitive 

light  of  election  that  the  nation  had  reserved  to  itself. 

^e  political  division  into  cantons  (gaw,)  long  used  ">  ancient 
OermanV.  was  introduced  into  all  the  new  conuueits  of  the  Oer- 
mantrilis,to  facilitate  the  administration  of  jus  ice.  At  the 
he»l  of  every  canton  was  a  usticiary  officer,  called  ^ar,  in 
LaS.  C«»m*»,  who  held  his  court  in  the  open  air,  assisted  by  a 
MTtodn  number  of  assessors  or  sheriffs.  This  new  division 
SSdatSchangeinthegeographyofEurope  Theancien 
SSo.  of  the  countries  were  every  where  replaced  by  new  ones , 
Sd  the  alterations  which  the  nomenclature  o  tl^es^j;^"'-"' 
Sderwent  in  course  of  time,  created  no  «";';»;",!yy^"™f » 
m  the  study  of  the  history  and  geography  of  the  ™  f  j«  •S"- 

Among  the  freemen  who  composed  tlie  armies  of  he  German 
n.tiZ  5e  find  the  grandees  anS  nobles,  who  we«  disUngui^ed 
Z  the«iumber  of  men-at-arms,  or  freemen,  whom  they  earned 
gthei/tmin.-  They  all  followed  the  king,  or  common  chie^ 
rfthe  expedition,  not  as  mercenar  es  or  «»"l»V«W";";i"*  " 
^lunteere  who  had  come,  of  their  own  accord,  to  accomP^y 
S„.    The  booty  and  the  conquests  which  hey  m^^^^^^^^ 


^  iir'ffli  liiiiiliiiiiny 


niioD  I.    A.  D.  406— SOO. 


ria,  and  in  a  part  of  mo* 
th  century,  a  eltief  named 
lations.  Ha  fought  sue- 
tftgobert.  It  is  aunpojted 
ivhom  several  of  the  Sla- 

eriod,  ouffht  ahove  all  to 
nee  which  the  revolution 
ernments,  laws,  manners, 
erman  tribes,  in  estabrish- 
le  Western  empire,  inlro- 
istitutions  by  which  they 
mtry.     The  governments 
ilitary  democracies,  under 
res  of  kings.     All  matters 
general  a38emblies,  com- 
ge  of  carrying  arms,  and 
he  throne  was  not  heredi- 
n  most  of  the  new  German 
princes,  they  were  atten- 
hich  evinced  the  primitive 
eserved  to  itself. 
[gaw,)  long  used  in  ancient 
new  conijueats  of  the  Oer- 
tration  of  justice.     At  the 
.ry  officer,  called  Grav,  in 
the  open  air,  assisted  by  a 
sriffs.     This  new  division 
y  of  Europe.     The  ancient 
lere  replaced  by  new  ones ; 
nclaturc  of  these  divisions 
d  no  small  embarrassment 
rfiphy  of  the  middle  ages. 
I  the  armies  of  the  Glerman 
lies,  who  were  distinguished 
eemen,  whom  they  carried 
the  king,  or  common  chief, 
I  or  regular  soldiers,  but  as 
own  accord,  to  accompany 
s  which  they  made  in  war, 
y,  to  which  they  had  all  an 
id  grandees,  in  the  division 
lortions  than  the  other  mill- 
be  greater  efforts  thev  had 
warriors  who  had  followed 


These  lands  were  given  tbem  m  proMr^ 

iplM 


them  to  the  field. 

in  every  respect  free ;  and  although  an  obligation  was'lmi 
of  their  concurring  in  defence  of  the  common  cause,  yat  it 
rather  a  sort  of  consequence  of  the  territorial  grant,  and  not  im- 
posed upon  them  as  a  clause,  or  essential  condition  of  the  tenon. 
It  is  tnerefore  wronir  to  regard  this  division  of  knds  as  having 

Eiven  rise  to  fiefs.  War  was  the  favourite  occupation,  the  only 
onourable  rank,  and  the  inalienable  prerogative  of  a  OermiD. 
They  were  soldiers  not  of  necessity  or  constraint,  but  of  their 
own  free  will,  and  because  they  despised  every  other  employ- 
ment,  and  every  other  mode  of  life.  Despotism  was,  therefor*, 
never  to  be  apprehended  in  a  govern/nent  like  this,  where  iIm 
great  body  of  the  nation  were  in  arms,  sat  in  their  general  aa* 
semblies,  and  marched  to  the  field  of  war.  Their  kings,  how- 
ever,  soon  invented  an  expedient  calculated  to  shackle  iIm 
national  liberty,  and  to  augment  their  own  influence  in  tha  pub- 
lie  assemblies,  by  the  number  of  retainers  which  they  fbnnd 
means  to  support.  This  expedient,  founded  on  the  primitiv* 
manners  of  the  Germans,  was  the  institution  of  fiefs. 

It  was  long  a  custom  among  the  ancient  Germans,  that  th«r 
chiefs  should  have,  in  peace  as  well  as  in  war,  a  numerous  suits 
of  the  bravest  youths  attached  to  their  person.  Besides  provi* 
sions,  they  supplied  them  with  hordes  and  arms,  and  sharea  wiUi 
them  the  spoil  which  they  took  in  war.  This  practice  subeisiad 
even  after  the  Germans  had  established  themselves  in  the  pro* 
vinces  of  the  Western  Empire.  The  kings,  and,  after  tneir 
example,  the  nobles,  continued  to  entertain  a  vast  number  of 
companions  and  followers ;  and  the  better  to  secure  their  alia- 
giance,  they  granted  them,  instead  of  horses  and  arms,  the  enjoy- 
ment of  certain  portions  of  land,  which  they  dismembered  uooi 
their  own  territories. 

These  grants,  known  at  first  by  the  name  of  befujleer,  and 
afterwards  of Jiefs,  subjected  those  who  received  them  to  personal 
servicea,  and  allegiance  to  the  superiors  of  whom  they  held 
them.  As  they  were  bestowed  on  the  individual  possesyr,  and 
on  the  express  condition  of  personal  services,  it  is  obvious  that 
originally  fiefs  or  benefices  were  not  hereditary;  and  that  they 
returned  to  the  superior,  when  the  reason  for  which  they  had 
been  given  no  longer  existed. 

The  laws  and  jurisprudence  of  the  Romans  were  in  full  prao* 
tice  through  all  the  provinces  of  the  Western  Empire,  when  the 
German  nations  established  themselves  there.  Far  from  super- 
seding or  abolishing  them,  the  invaders  permitted  the  ancient 
inhabitants,  and  such  of  their  new  subjects  as  desired  it,  to  Ufa 
conformably  to  these  laws,  and  to  retain  them  in  their  courts  of 

6* 


m 


H  CKAPTM  n> 

Udence.  which  accorded  neither  with  the  rudeneM  of  their 
SwneA.  nor  the  imperfection  of  their  ideu.  t»iey  took  great 
«w,  after  their  .etUement  in  the  Roman  P'«'Jf»«=f' »« *»■" j^.' 
Mci^nt  cuitomt,  to  which  they  were  so  peculiarly  attached,  di- 
Mited  and  reduced  to  writing.  .     »,     •     .l         r  .u- 

"The  Codes  of  the  Salian  and  Ripuanan  Franks,  those  of  the 
VUigoths,the  Burgundians,  the  Bavarians,  the  Anglo-Saxons, 
Jm  Frisians,  the  ATemanns,  and  the  Lombords,  were  collected 
toto  one  body,  and  liberty  given  to  every  c  us«n  to  .be  governed 
M^^ing  to  that  code  oflaws  which  he  himself  might  choose 
S^Aesf  laws  wore  the  impress  of  Use  military  spirit  of  the 
Oormana.  as  well  as  of  their  attachment  to  that  personal  liberty 
•Xideicndence.  which  is  the  true  characteristic  of  human 
SfurJiits  primitive  state.    According  to  these  laws,  every 
nmon  was  iudired  by  his  peers;  and  the  right  of  vengeance 
5rws^r"erto*the  individVals,  or  the  whole  family,  of  those 
Zho  had  received  injuries.    Feuds,  which  thus  became  hered.- 
3,  were  not  however  irreconcilable^    <^ompromise  was  allow- 
2Pfor  all  private  delinquencies,  which  could  be  expiated,  by 
MV^ng  to  tEe  injured  party  a  specified  sum,  or  a  certain  number 
SSStle.    MurJer  itse7  uiight  be  expiated  «« this  manner ;  and 
0Tvy  part  of  the  body  had  a  tax  or  equivalent,  which  was  more 
TOs  «vere.  according  to  the  different  rank  or  condition  of 

*^°verv  fre'eman  was  exempt  from  corporal  punishment;  and 
inlubffu  caZ  the  law  obfiged  the  iud|es  to  refer  the  parties 
S  abgle  combat,  enjoining  them  to  Mo  their  quarrel  sworf 
ta  hand.  Hence,  we  have  the  oririn  of  ihe  Judgments  of  God, 
iwSl  as  of  ChaUenge$  and  Duds.*»  These  customs  of  the 
Slnnan  nations,  and  their  singular  resolution  in  persistmg  m 
£™  could  not  but  interrupt  the  go«^  order  of  society,  encou- 
S?barbarism,  and  stamp  i>.e  same  character  of  rudeness  on  «1 
S'r  conquests  New  wants  sprung  from  new  enioyments; 
SSle  rrence.  and  the  contagion  of  example,  taught  hem  to 
emmicC  vices  of  which  they  had  been  ignorant,  and  which  they 
SdS  i^deem  by  new  virties.  Murders,  oppressions,  and  rob 
teies  multiplied  every  day ;  the  sword  was  made  the  standard 
jThonour  th^e  rule  of  justJeand  injustice ;  "uf  X an^  pe'fid^^ 
became  every  where  the  reigning  character  of  the  court,  th. 

■tiU;Je;  witrtaru  and  sciences,  felt  above  all  the  bane- 
fclXts  of  this  revolution.  In  less  ^an  *  century  after  the 
tot  invnsion  of  the  barbarians.  tb«re  scarcely  ""»»•»•*  "'"jl; 
««ee  of  the  literature  and  fine  arw  of  the  Romans.    Learning, 


T 


ig  this  •vit*m  of  jnrii' 

the  rudeiMU  of  their 

ideM,  ttk«y  took  great 

provincet,  to  hare  their 

peculiarly  attached,  di- 

ian  Franks,  those  of  the 
ians,  the  Anglo-Saxons, 
ombords,  were  collected 
Y  citisim  to  be  governed 
>  himself  might  choose, 
se  military  spirit  of  the 
t  to  that  personal  liberty 
characteristic  of  human 
ing  to  these  laws,  every 

the  right  of  vengeance 
B  whole  family,  of  those 
kich  thus  became  heredi- 

Compromise  was  allow- 
;h  could  be  expiated,  by 
sum,  or  a  certain  number 
ated  in  this  manner ;  and 
livalent,  which  was  more 
ent  rank  or  condition  of 

>rporal  punishment;  and 
judges  to  refer  the  parties 
ecide  their  quarrel  sword 
of  the  Judgmenti  of  God, 
*  These  customs  of  the 
esolution  in  persisting  in 
d  order  of  society,  encou* 
tiaracter  of  rudeness  on  all 
T  from  new  enioyments  ; 
example,  taught  them  to 
I  ignorant,  and  which  they 
den,  oppressions,  and  rol> 
ird  was  made  the  8tandar<! 
istice ;  cruelty  and  perfid) 
character  of  the  court,  the 

les,  felt  above  all  the  bane- 
s  Uian  a  century  after  the 
scarcely  remained  a  single 
r  the  Boraans.    Learning. 


nuoD  t.    A.  D.  40^—800. 


M 


It  is  trae,  had  for  a  long  time  been  gradually  falling  into  deeBT» 
and  a  corrupt  taste  had  oegun  to  appear  among  the  Romans  fa 
works  of  geniaa  and  imagination ;  but  no  comparison  can  b« 
made  between  the  state  of  literature,  such  as  it  was  in  the  Weat 
anterior  to  the  revolution  of  the  fifth  century,  and  that  which  wt 
find  there  after  the  conquests  of  the  German  nations. 

These  barbarians,  addicted  solely  to  war  and  the  chase,  da* 
spised  the  arts  and  sciences.  Under  their  destructive  hands, 
the  finest  monuments  of  the  Romans  were  levelled  to  the  ground ; 
their  libraries  were  reduced  to  ashes ;  their  schools  and  semi- 
naries of  instruction  annliiilated.  The  feeble  rays  of  learning 
that  remained  to  the  vanquished,  we-e  unable  to  enlighten  or 
eiviliie  those  enemies  to  knowledge  and  msntal  cultivation. 
The  sciences,  unpatronised  and  unprotected  by  those  ferocioaa 
conquerors,  soon  fell  into  total  contempt. 

It  is  to  the  Christian  religion  alone,  which  was  embraced,  ia 
succession,  by  the  barbarous  destroyers  of  the  empire,  that  we 
owe  the  preservation  of  the  mutilated  and  venerable  remaini 
which  we  possess  of  Greek  and  Roman  literature."  The  cler* 
gy,  being  the  authorized  teachers  of  reliffion,  and  the  only  inter< 

treters  of  the  sacred  writings,  were  obliged  by  their  office  to 
ave  some  tincture  of  letters.  They  thus  became,  over  all  the 
East,  the  sole  depositaries  of  learning;  and  for  a  long  series  of 
ages,  there  was  nobody  in  any  other  rank  or  profession  of  life, 
that  occupied  themselves  with  science,  or  had  the  slightest  ae* 
quaintance  even  with  the  art  of  writing.  These  advantages 
which  the  clergy  enjoyed,  contributed  m  no  small  degree  lb 
augment  their  credit  and  their  influence.  Every  where  they 
were  intrusted  with  the  Management  of  state  afiairs;  and  the 
offices  of  chancellor,  ministers,  public  notaries,  and  in  general, 
all  situations  where  knowledge  or  the  art  of  writing  was  indk> 
pensable,  were  reserved  for  them  ;  and  in  this  way  their  very 
name  (clerieut)  became  as  it  wore  the  synonyme  for  a  man  of 
letters,  or  any  person  capable  of  handling  the  pen.  The  bish 
ops,  moreover,  held  the  first  rank  in  all  political  assemblies,  and 
in  war  marched  to  the  field  in  person,  at  the  head  of  their  vassals. 
Another  circumstance  that  contributed  to  raise  the  credit  and 
the  power  of  the  clergy  was,  that  the  Latin  language  continued 
to  be  employed  in  the  Roman  provinces  which  had  Feen  sub* 
iected  to  the  dominion  of  the  German  nations.  Every  thing 
was  written  exclusively  in  the  Roman  tongue,  which  became  the 
language  of  the  churcn,  and  of  all  public  acts ;  and  it  was  long 
before  the  German  dialects,  which  had  become  universally  pre* 
valent,  could  be  reduced  to  writing.  The  corrupt  pronunciation 
of  the  Latin,  and  its  mixture  with  foreign  idioms  and  contsnic* 


■J 


CHAVTSB  II. 

tions,  gave  birth,  in  course  of  time,  to  new  langnagei,  which 
still  retain  evidence  of  their  Roman  origin,  such  as  the  Italian, 
Spanish,  Portuguese,  French  and  English  languages.  In  the 
fifth  and  following  centuries,  the  Teutonic  language,  or  that 
spoken  by  Uie  conquerors  of  Gaul,  was  called  2tn;«a  Francica; 
tfcs  was  distinguished  from  the  lingua  Romana,  or  the  language 
spoken  by  the  people  ;  ard  which  afterwards  gave  rise  to  the 
modem  French.  It  appears,  therefore,  from  what  we  have  just 
stated,  that  the  incursion  of  the  German  tribes  into  the  provinces 
of  the  West,  was  the  true  source  of  all  the  barbarity,  ignorance 
and  superstition,  in  which  that  part  of  Europe  was  so  long  and 
to  universally  buried. 

There  would  have  been,  therefore,  every  reason  to  deplore  a 
(evolution,  not  less  sanguinary  in  itself  than  disastrous  in  its 
consequences,  if,  on  the  one  hand,  it  had  not  been  the  instru- 
Btent  of  delivering  Europe  from  the  terrible  despotism  of  the 
Bomans ;  and,  on  the  other,  if  we  did  not  find,  in  the  rude  in- 
stitutions of  the  German  conquerors,  some  germs  of  liberty, 
which,  sooner  or  later,  were  sure  to  lead  the  nations  of  Europe 
to  wiser  laws,  and  better  organized  gove.    -nents. 

Among  the  states  which  rose  on  the  ro!.  s  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire, that  of  the  Franks  acquired  the  preponderance ;  and,  for 
several  ages,  it  sustained  the  character  of  being  the  most  pow- 
erful kingdom  in  Europe.  This  monarchy,  founded  by  Clovis, 
and  extended  still  more  by  his  successors,  embraced  the  whole 
of  Gaul  except  Languedoc,  which  belonged  to  the  Visigoths.* 
'ih»  greater  part  of  Germany  also  was  subject  to  it,  with  the 
exception  of  Saxony,  dnd  the  territories  of  the  Slavi.  After  it 
had  fallen  into  decay,  by  the  partitions  and  civil  wars  of  the 
descendants  of  Clovis,  it  rose  again,  solely  however  by  the  wis- 
dom and  ability  of  the  mayors  of  the  palace,  who  restored  it  once 
more  to  its  original  splendour. 

These  mayors,  from  being  originally  merely  grand-masters  of 
the  court,  rose  by  degrees  to  be  prime  ministers,  governors  of 
the  state,  and  ullimately  to  be  kings.     The  founder  of  their 

?ieatness,  was  Pepin  d'Heristal,  a  cadet  of  the  dynasty  of  the 
!arIovingi!ini«,  which  succeeded  that  of  the  Merovingians,  to- 
wards the  middle  of  the  eighth  century.  Under  the  Meroyin- 
eian  princes,  the  sovereignty  was  divided  between  two  principal 
kingdoms,  viz.  that  of  Austrasia,  which  comprehended  East- 
em  France,  being  all  that  part  of  Ganl  situated  between  the 
Meuse,  the  Scheld,  and  the  Rhine ;  as  well  as  the  German  pro- 
vinces beyond  the  Rhine,  which  also  made  a  part  of  that  mo- 
narchy. The  whole  of  Western  Gaul,  lying  between  the  Scheld, 
the  Meuse  and  the  Loire,  was  called  Neustria.     Burgundy, 


niaafS 


^ssmm 


■irr 


?BBIOI>  I.     A.  B.  406 — 800. 


tf 


i  new  langnaffei,  which 
rigiii,  such  as  the  Italian, 
|rlish  languages.  In  the 
lutonic  language,  or  that 
i  called  ^tn^ua  Franeica; 
Romano,  or  the  language 
lerwards  gave  rise  to  the 
5,  from  what  we  have  just 
n  tribes  into  the  provinces 
11  the  barbarity,  ignorance 
'  Europe  was  so  long  and 

every  reason  to  deplore  a 
self  than  disastrous  in  its 
had  not  been  the  instru- 
terrible  despotism  of  the 
1  not  find,  in  the  rude  in* 
i,  some  germs  of  liberty, 
ead  the  nations  of  Europe 
ove.    nents. 

le  rol.  s  of  the  Bomnn  em- 
i  preponderance ;  and,  for 
er  of  being  the  most  pow- 
narchy,  founded  by  Clovis, 
ssors,  embraced  the  whole 
elonged  to  the  Visigoths." 
vas  subject  to  it,  with  the 
:ies  of  the  Slavi.  After  it 
i«ns  and  civil  wars  of  the 
solely  however  by  the  wis- 
[)alace,  who  restored  it  once 

lly  merely  grand-masters  of 
me  ministers,  governors  of 
gs.  The  founder  of  their 
;adet  of  the  dynasty  of  the 
it  of  the  Merovingians,  to- 
ury.  Under  the  Meroyin- 
rided  between  two  principal 
rh'xch  comprehended  East- 
Ganl  situated  between  ihe 
as  well  as  the  German  pro- 
5o  made  a  part  of  that  mo- 
1,  lying  between  the  Scheld, 
led  Neustria.     Burgundy, 


Aquitain,  and  Provence,  were  considered  as  dependencies  of  this 
latter  kingdom.  ,  ... 

Dagobert  II.,  King  of  Austrasia,  having  been  assassmated,  in 
678,  the  King  of  Neustria,  Thierry  HI.,  would  in  all  probability 
have  reunited  the  two  monarchies ;  but  the  Austrasians,  who 
dreaded  and  detested  Ebroin,  Mayor  of  Neustria,  elected  a 
mayor  of  their  own,  under  the  nominal  authority  of  Thierry. 
This  gave  rise  to  a  sort  of  civil  war  between  the  Austrasians  and 
the  Neustrians,  headed  by  Pepin  Heristal,  Mayor  of  Austrasia, 
and  Bertaire,  Mayor  of  Neustria,  who  succeeded  Ebroin.     The 
battle  which  Pepin  gained  at  Testry,  near  St.  Quentin  (687,) 
decided  the  fate  of  the  empire  ;  Bertaire  was  slain,  and  Thierry 
III.  fell  under  the  power  of  the  conqueror.     Pepin  afterwards 
confirmed  to  Thierry  the  honours  of  royalty,  and  contented  him- 
self with  the  dignity  of  mayor,  and  the  title  of  Duke  and  Prince 
of  the  Franks ;  but  regarding  the  throne  as  his  own  by  right  of 
conquest,  he  vested  in  himself  the  sovereign  authority,  and 
granted  to  the  Merovingian  Prince,  nothing  more  than  the  mere 
externals  of  majesty,  and  the-  simple  title  of  king.     Such  was 
the  revolution  that  transferred  the  supreme  authority  of  the 
Franks  to  a  new  dynasty,  viz.  that  of  the  Carlovingians,  who 
with  great  moderation,  still  preserved,  during  a  period  of  sixty- 
five  years,  the  royal  dignitjr  to  the  Meravingian  princes,  whom 
they  had  stripped  of  all  their  power.*' 

Pepin  d'Heristal  being  dead  (714,)  the  partizans  of  the  ancient 
dynasty  made  a  last  effort  to  liberate  the  Merovingian  kings 
from  that  dependence  under  which  Pepin  had  held  them  ao  long. 
Thisorince,  in  transferring  the  sovereign  authority  to  his  grand- 
son Theodwald,  only  six,  years  of  age,  had  devolved  on  his 
widow,  whose  name  was  Plectrude,  the  regency  and  guardian- 
ship of  the  young  mayor.  .  .      i-     • 

A  government  so  extraordinary  emboldened  the  factious  to 
attempt  a  revolution.  The  regent,  as  well  as  her  grandson,  were 
divested  of  the  sovereignty,  and  the  Neustrian  grandees  chose 
a  mayor  of  their  own  party  named  Rainfroy ;  but  their  triumph 
was  only  of  short  duration.  Charles  Martel,  natural  son  of 
Pepin  as  is  supposed,  having  escaped  from  the  prison  where  he 
had  been  detained  by  the  regent,  passed  into  Austrasia,  and  then 
caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  duke,  after  the  example  of  his 
father.  He  engaged  in  a  war  against  Chilperic  II.  and  his  mayor 
Rainfroy ;  three  successive  victories  which  he  gained,  viz.  at 
Stavelo,  Vinci  near  Cambray,  and  Soissons,  in  716-17-18,  made 
him  once  more  master  of  the  throne  and  the  sovereign  authority. 
The  Duke  of  Aquitain  having  delivered  up  King  Chilperic  to 
him,  he  confirmed  anew  the  title  of  royalty  to  that  prmce ;  and 


!f 


cturm  n. 

After  raiaed  his  glory  to  its  highest  jutch,  hv  the  hriUiant 

▼ictorfes  which  he  gained  over  the  Arabs  (732-737,)  in  the  plains 
of  Poitiers  and  Narbonne. 

Pepin  le  Bref,  (or  the  Short)  son  and  successor  of  Charles 
Martel,  finding  hie  authority  established  both  within  and  with- 
out  his  dominions,  judged  this  a  favourable  opportunity  for  re- 
uniting the  title  of  royalty  to  the  power  of  the  sovereign.  He 
managed  to  have  himself  elected  Kin?  in  the  General  Assem- 
bly of  the  Franks,  which  was  convened  in  the  Champ-de-Mars, 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Soissons.  Childeric  III.  the  last  of 
the  Merovingian  kings,  was  there  deposed  {752;)  and  shut  up 
in  a  convent.  Pepin,  with  the  intention  of  rendering  his  person 
sacred  and  inviolable,  had  recourse  to  the  ceremony  of  corona- 
tion ;  and  he  was  the  first  King  who  caused  himself  to  be 
aolemnly  consecrated  and  crowned  in  the  Cathedral  of  Sois- 
s'ons,  by  St.  Boniface,  first  archbishop  of  Mayence."*  The 
example  of  Pepin  was  followed  soon  after  by  several  princes  and 
sovereigns  of  Europe.  The  lust  conquest  he  added  to  his  do- 
minion was  thje  province  of  Languedoc,  which  he  took  (759) 
from  the  Arabs. 

The  origin  of  the  secular  power  of  the  Roman  pontiffs  com- 
mences with  the  reign  of  Pepin.  This  event,  which  had  so 
peculiar  an  influence  on  the  religion  and  government  of  the  Euro- 
pean nations,  requires  to  be  detailed  at  some  length. 

At  the  period  of  which  we  write,  there  existed  a  violent  con- 
troversy between  the  churches  in  the  East,  and  those  in  the 
West,  respecting  the  worship  of  images.  The  Emperor  Leo 
die  Isaurian  had  declared  himself  against  this  worship,  and  had 
proscribed  it  by  an  imperial  edict  (726.)  He  and  his  successors 
persisted  in  destroying  these  objects  of  idolatry,  as  well  as  in 
persecuting  those  who  avowed  themselves  devotees  to  this 
heresy.  This  extravagant  zeal,  which  the  Roman  pontiffs 
blamed  as  excessive,  excited  the  indignation  of  the  people 
against  the  Grecian  Emperors."  In  Italy,  there  were  frequent 
rebellions  against  the  imperial  officers  that  were  charged  with 
the  execution  of  their  orders.  The  Romans  especially,  took 
occasion,  froip  this,  to  expel  the  duke  or  governor,  who  resided 
in  their  city  on  the  part  of  the  emperor ;  and  they  formally 
erected  themselves  into  a  republic  (730.)  under  the  pontificate 
of  Gregory  II.,  by  usurping  all  the  rights  of  sovereignty,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  reviving  the  ancient  names  of  the  senate  and 
the  Roman  people.  The  Pope  was  recognised  as  chief  or  head 
of  this  new  republic,  and  had  the  general  direction  of  all  affairs, 
both  at  home  and  abroad.  The  territory  of  this  republic,  formed 
of  the  dutchy  of  Rome,  extended,  from  north  to  south,  from 


Iiesi  pitch,  by  the  brilliant 
)8  (7^-737,)  in  the  plains 

ind  successor  of  Charles 
ed  both  within  and  with- 
irable  opportunity  for  re- 
er  of  the  sovereign.    He 

Sin  the  General  Assem- 
in  tibe  Charop-de-Mars, 
Childeric  III.  the  last  of 
)osed  (7d2i)  and  shut  up 
)n  of  rendering  his  person 
the  ceremony  of  corona- 
ho  caused  himself  to  be 
n  the  Cathedral  of  Sois- 
liop  of  Mayence.*  The 
fier  by  several  princes  and 
quest  he  added  to  his  do- 
loc,  which  he  took  (759) 

the  Roman  pontiffs  com- 
?his  event,  which  had  so 
d  government  of  the  Euro- 
it  some  length, 
iiere  existed  a  violent  con- 
te  East,  and  those  in  the 
iges.  The  Emperor  Leo 
linst  this  worship,  and  had 
}.)  He  and  his  successors 
of  idolatry,  as  well  as  in 
mselves  devotees  to  this 
lich  the  Roman  pontiffs 
ndignation  of  the  people 
Italy,  there  were  frequent 
s  that  were  charged  with 

Romans  especially,  took 
!  or  governor,  who  resided 
peror ;  and  they  formally 
30,)  under  the  pontificate 
ights  of  sovereignty,  and, 
it  names  of  the  senate  and 
ecognised  as  chief  or  head 
eral  direction  of  all  affairs, 
ory  of  this  republic,  formed 
rom  north  to  south,  from 


ruMioD  u   A.  s.  406—800.  Il' 

Viterbo  as  far  as  Terracina ;  and  from  east  to  west,  from  Nami 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber.  Such  was  the  weakness  of  the 
Eastern  empire,  that  all  the  effort  "(  the  emperors  to  reduce 
the  Romans  to  subjection  proved  tt-availing.  The  Greek  vice- 
roy—the  Duke  of  Naples,  who  had  marched  to  besiege  Rome, 
was  killed  in  batUe,  together  with  his  son ;  and  the  exarch  him- 
self was  compelled  to  make  peace  with  the  republicans. 

This  state  df  distress  to  which  the  Grecian  empire  was  re» 
dujed,  afforded  the  Lombards  an  opportunity  of  extending  their 
possessions  in  Italy.  Aistolphus  their  king  attacked  the  city  of 
Ravenna  (751,)  where  the  exarchs  or  governors-general  of  the 
Greeks  had  fixed  their  residence ;  and  soon  made  himself  master 
of  it,  as  well  as  the  province  of  the  exarchate,**  and  the  Pen* 
tapolis.    The  exarch  Eulychius  was  obliged  to  fly,  and  took 

shelter  in  Naoles.  .    ,     ,  „      .      ,   ,         ,.  , .      j 

This  surrender  of  the  capital  of  Grecian  Italy,  emboldenefl 
the  Lombard  King  to  extend  his  views  still  farther }  he  demanded 
the  submission  of  the  city  and  dutchyof  Rome,  which  he  con- 
sidered as  a  dependency  of  the  exarchate.  Pope  Stephen  II. 
became  alarmed,  and  began  to  solicit  an  alliance  with  the 
Greek  empire,  whose  distant  power  seemed  tohim  less  formi* 
dable  than  that  of  the  Lombards,  his  neighbours ;  but  being 
closely  pressed  by  Aistolphus,  and  finding  that  he  had  no  suc- 
cour to  expect  from  Constantinople;  he  determined  to  apply  for 
protection  to  the  Franks  and  their  King  Pepin. 

The  Franks,  at  that  time,  held  the  first  rank  among  the  na- 
tions of  Europe ;  their  exploits  against  the  Arabians  had  gained 
them  a  high  reputation  for  valour  over  all  the  West.  Slephea 
repaired  in  person  to  France,  and  in  an  interview  which  he  had 
wUh  Pepin,  he  found  means  to  interest  that  prince  in  his  cause. 
Pepin  did  not  yet  regard  himself  as  securely  established  on  a 
throne  which  he  had  so  recently  usurped  from  the  Merovingiwi 
princes ;  more  especially  as  there  still  existed  a  son  of  Childeric 
ni.,  named  Thierry,  and  a  formidable  rivalry  in  the  puisswat 
dukes  of  Aquitain,  who  were  cadets  of  the  same  family.  He 
had  no  other  right  to  the  crown  than  that  of  election  ;  and  this 
title,  instead  of  descending  to  his  sons,  might  perhaps  serve  as 
a  pretext  for  depriving  them  of  the  sovereignty.  Anxious  to 
render  the  crown  hereditary,  he  induced  the  Pope  to  renew  tlM 
ceremony  of  his  coronation  in  the  Church  of  St.  Denis ;  and) 
at  the  same  time,  to  consecrate  his  two  sons,  Charles  and  Car- 
loman.  The  Pope  did  more ;  he  disengaged  the  King  from  Uw 
oath  which  he  had  taken  to  Childeric,  and  bound  all  the  nobUity 
of  the  Franks,  that  were  present  on  the  occasion,  in  the  nwM 
of  Jesus  Christ  and  St.  Peter,  to  preserve  the  toytl  digaitjr  m 


-i"-:-*'K:..v'>'.  *'':*-'»i'^'." 


'r_>.^A^,-^^yi^^'^j^:i'^^:'mX-iy>^,'J-*' 


m 


i 


8t; 


>• 


gg  inurm  n. 

dM  liiAt  of  P*p  ^  "d  hU  dMcendMtoj  Md  lMUJ^  that  he 
niahtdM  more  effectuaUy  swjure  the  attachment  of  Pepin  and 
BJfaMTand  procuw  for'^hiinMlf  the  tiUe  of  beingtheir  pro- 
teetorriie  pubUdy  conferred  on  them  the  honour  of  bemg  patn- 

"^sl  tlSt^descension  on  the  part  of  the  Pope  could  not  but 
excite  the  gratitude  of  Pepin.    He  not  ouly  promieed  him  buc- 
couragainJt  the  Lombards;  he  engaged  to  recoyer  the  exarchate 
fa>mto  hands,  and  make  a  present  of  it  to  AeHo^y  See; 
KTvTmade  him  a  grant  of  it  by  antictaaUon.  which.he  sigiied 
at  the  Castle  of  Chiersi-sur-rOise,  and  wWh  he  likewise  caused 
to  te  signed  by  the  prince,  his  «ons.*»    It  was  m  fulfilment  of 
SeM  s^uUtiois  that  Pepin  "ndertook  (7^)  two  successive 
expeditions  into  Italy.   He  compeUed  Aurtolphus  to  acknowledge 
himself  his  vassal,  and  deliver  up  to  him  the  exarchate  with 
the  Pentapolis,  of  which  he  iromedmtely  put  hiS  Hohness  m 
possession:    This  donation  of  Pephi  Mrved  to  confirm  and  to 
Sxtend  the  secular  power  of  ihe  Popes,  which  had  already  ^en 
augmented  by  various  grants  of  a  similar  kmd.    The  original 
document  of  this  singular  contract  no  longer  "ists;  but  Ae 
names  of  the  places  are  preserved  which  were  ceded  to  the 

'*In?£'condu8ion  of  this  period,  it  may  be  proper  to  take  some 
notice  of  the  Arabs,  commonly  called  Saracens."  and  of  their 
irruption  into  Europe.    Mahomet,  an  Arab  of  noble  birth,  and 
a  native  of  Mecca,  had  constituted  himself  a  prophet,  a  legisla- 
tor, and  a  conqueror,  about  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  cenlunr 
of  the  Christian  era.    He  had  been  expelled  from  Mecca  (6^) 
on  account  of  his  predictions,  but  afterwards  returned  at  the 
head  of  an  army ;  and  having  made  himself  master  of  Uie  city, 
heVucceeded  by  decrees,  in  subjecting  to  his  yoke  the  numerous 
tribes  of  Arabia.    His  successors,  known  by  the  name  of  Ca- 
Udis.  or  vicars  spiritual  and  temooral  of  the  prophet,  followed 
ST  ^e  triumphant  career.    They  propagated  Aeir  relwon 
wherever  they  extended  their  empire,  and  ovemn  with  their 
conquests  the  vast  regions  both  of  Asia  and  Africa.     Syria, 
pffine.  Egypt,  Barca,  Tripoli,  and  the  whole  northern  coasts 
of  AfcicJ^  wS?won  from  t£e  Greek  empire  by  vhe  Caliphs; 
who  at  the  same  time  (661)  overthrew  the  powerful  monarchy 
of  the  Persians ;  conquered  Charasm,  Transoxiana,  and  the  In- 
dies, and  founded  an  empire  more  «t™"re  ^''•'V**VrI  ^ 
Romans  had  been.    The  capital  of  the  Caliphs,  which  had  on- 
SSSTbeen  at  Medina,  and  l^fterwards  at  Cufa.  was  .transfened 
Sei)  by  Uie  Caliph  Moavia  L  to  Damascus  >n  Syria;  and  by 
Se  Caliph  AlmaLor,  to  Bagdad  in  Irak-Aiabia.  (766)  whwh 
was  founded  by  that  prince 


^ 


ats;  and  iMtly,  that  he 
attachment  of  Pepin  and 
title  of  beinff  their  pro- 
honour  of  oeing  patri- 

if  the  Pope  could  not  but 

only  promised  him  sue* 

'  to  recover  the  exarchate 

of  it  to  the  Holy  See ; 

cnation,  which  he  signed 

wnich  he  likewise  caused 

It  was  in  fulfilment  of 

c  (765-66)  two  successive 

Listolphus  to  acknowledge 

him  the  exarchate  with 

itely  put  hiil  Holiness  in 

served  to  confirm  and  to 

I,  which  had  already  been 

lilar  kind.    The  original 

10  longer  exists;  but  the 

which  were  ceded  to  the 

lay  be  proper  to  take  some 
1  Saracens,*'  and  of  their 
I  Arab  of  noble  birth,  and 
mself  a  prophet,  a  legisla- 
ling  of  the  seventh  century 
xpelled  from  Mecca  (622) 
(terwards  returned  at  the 
hioiself  master  of  the  city, 
{ to  his  yoke  the  numerous 
aown  by  the  name  of  Ca- 
ll of  the  prophet,  followed 
'  propagated  their  reliffion 
!i,  and  overran  with  their 
Asia  and  Africa.  Syria, 
the  whole  northern  coasts 
i  empire  by  ibe  Caliphs ; 
iw  the  powerful  monarchy 
,  Transoxiana,  and  the  In* 
ixtensive  than  that  of  the 
it  Caliphs,  which  had  ori- 
Is  at  Cufa.  was  transfened 
mascus  in  Syria;  and  by 
Ii^k-Arabia,  (766)  which 


»d& 


Mtios  I.    A.  D.  40S— 800. 


•MltH 


m 


•■y-^ 


tt-wai  under  the  Caliphate  of  Walid  (711.)  that  dw  Araba 
first  invaded  Barope,  and  attacked  the  monarchy  of  the  Visigoths 
in  Spain.  This  monarchy  had  already  sunk  under  the  fteUe- 
ness  of  its  kings,  and  the  despotic  prerogatives  which  the  gran> 
dees,  and  especially  the  bishops,  had  arrogated  to  thamaclves. 
These  latter  disposed  of  the  throne  at  their  pleasure,  having 
declared  it  to  be  elective.  They  decided  with  supreme  authority 
in  the  councils  of  the  nation,  and  in  all  affairs  of  state.  Muxa 
at  that  time  commanded  in  northern  Africa,  in  name  of  the  Ca- 
liph Wdid.  By  the  authority  of  that  sovereign,  he  sent  into 
Spain  one  of  his  generals,  named  Taric  or  Tarec-Abenara, 
wno,  having  made  a  descent  on  the  coasts  of  Andalusia,  took 
his  station  on  the  hill  which  the  ancients  called  Calp^,  and  which 
has  since  been  known  by  the  name  of  Gibraltar  (Oibel-Tarie,) 
or  the  hill  of  Taric,  in  commemoration  of  the  Arabian  aeneraL 

It  was  in  the  neishbourhood  of  the  city  Xeres  de  la  rrontera, 
in  Andalusia,  that  Taric  encountered  the  army  of  the  Visigoths, 
commanded  by  their  King  Roderic.  '  The  battle  was  decisive, 
as  the  Visigoths  sustains  a  total  defeat.  Roderic  perished  in 
the  flight ;  and  Muza,  the  Arabian  governor,  having  arrived  to 
second  the  efforts  of  Taric,  the  conquest  of  all  Spain  followed 
as  a  consequence  of  this  victory.*  Septimania,  or  Languedoe, 
which  then  made  a  part  of  the  Visigothic  monarchy,  pMsed  at 
the  same  time  under  the  dommiori  of  the  Arabs. 

These  fierce  invaders  did  not  limit  their  conquests  in  Europe 
to  Spain  and  Laneniedoc  ;  the  Balearic  Isles,  Sardinia,  Corsica* 
part  of  Apulia  and  Calabria,  fell  likewise  under  their  dominion : 
they  infested  the  sea  with  their  fleets,  and  more  than  once  car- 
ried terror  and  desolation  to  the  very  gates  of  Rome.  It  is  pro- 
bable even  that  all  Europe  would  have  submitted  to  their  yoke, 
if  Charles  Martel  had  not  arrested  the  career  of  their  victoriet. 
He  defeated  their  numerous  and  warlike  armies  in  the  bloody 
battles  which  were  fought  near  Poitiers  and  Narbonne  (79fl^ 
737,)  and  at  length  compelled  them  to  shut  themsehia  op 
within  the  province  of  Languedoe. 

The  unity  of  the  empire  and  the  religion  of  Mahomet,  did 
not  long  remain  undivided.  The  first  dynasty  of  the  Calij^ 
that  of  the  Ommiades,  was  subverted ;  and  all  the  princes  of 
that  family  massacred  bv  the  Abassides  (749,)  who  seiied  die 
caliphate."  A  solitary  descendant  of  the  Ommiades,  named  Alh 
dalrakam,  grandson  of  the  fifteenth  Caliph  Huscham,  was 
saved  rn  Spain,  and  fixed  his  residence  at  Cordova ;  and  bahig 
acknowledged  as  Caliph  by  the  Mussulmans  there,  he  detaehad 
that  province  from  the  great  empire  of  the  Arabians.    (768.) 

This  revolution,  and  the  confusion  with  which  it  waa  i 

VOL.  L  6 


^:jM^ 


at  M'     aUFTKtn. 

mnied,  gave  fresh  courage  to  the  small  number  of  Visigoths, 
who,  to  escape  the  Mahometan  yoke,  had  retired  to  the  moun* 
tains  of  Asturias.  Issuing  from  their  retreats,  they  retaliated 
on  the  Infidels ;  and  towards  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century, 
they  laid  the  foundation  of  a  new  Christian  state,  called  after- 
wards the  kingdom  of  Oviedo  or  Leon.  Alphonso  I.,  sur- 
named  the  Catholic,  must  be  regarded  as  the  first  founder  of 
this  new  monarchy." 

The  Franks,  likewise,  took  adrantage  of  these  events,  to  ex- 
pel the  Arabs  from  Languodoc.  Pepin  took  possession  of  the 
cities  of  Nismes,  Maguelonne,  Agde,  and  Beziers  (7ffiJ,)  which 
were  delivered  up  to  him  by  a  noWe  Goth,  named  Osmond. 
The  reduction  of  Narbonne  was  by  no  means  so  easy  a  task. 
For  seven  years  he  continued  to  blockade  it ;  and  it  was  not 
until  769  that  he  became  master  of  the  city,  and  the  whole  of 
Languedoc.  ,  ,      .,      .. 

The  loss  of  Spain,  on  the  part  of  the  Abassides,  was  soon 
after  followed  by  that  of  Northern  Africa.    Ibrahim  Ben-Aglab, 
having  been  sent  thither  as  governor  by  the  Caliph  of  Bagdad, 
Haroun  Alrashid  (800.)  he  found  means  to  constitute  himself 
sovereign  prince  over  the  countries,  then  properly  termed  Afri- 
ca ;  of  which  Tripoli,  Cairoan,  Tunis,  and  Algiers,  formed  a 
part.    He  was  the  founder  of  the  dynasiv  ©f  the  Aglabites  ^ 
While  another  usurper,  named  Edris,  having  conquered  Numi- 
diaand  Mauritania,  called  by  the  Arabs  Mogreb,  founded  that 
of  the  Edrissites.    These  two  dynasties  were  overturned  (about 
906)  by  Aboul  Cassem  Mohammed,  son  of  Obeidallah,  who 
churned  to  be  descended  from  Ali,  by  Fatima,  daughter  of  the 
prophet;  he  subjected  the  whole  of  Northern  Africa  to  his 
yoke,  and  took  the  titles  of  Mahadi  and  Cahph.    From  him 
Were  descended  the  Caliphs,  called  Fatimites,  who  extended 
their  conquests  to  Earvpt.  and  laid  there  the  foundation  of  Ka- 
heiah,  or  Grand  Cairo  (968,)  where  they  estabhshed  the  seat 
of  their  "caliphate,  which,  in  the  twelfth  century,  was  destroyed 

by  the  Ayoubides.  „    .      ..      .  •»  .^. 

The  irruption  of  the  Arabs  into  Spain,  disastrous  as  it  was, 
did  not  fail  to  produce  effects  beneficwl  to  Europe,  which  owes 
Ha  civiUzation  partly  to  this  circumstance.  The  Abassidian 
Caliphs,  aspiring  to  be  the  protectors  of  letters  and  arts,  begaii 
to  found  schoofa,  and  to  encourage  translations  of  the  most 
eminent  Greek  authors  into  the  Arabic  language.  Their  ex- 
ample  was  followed  by  the  Calipha  of  Cordova,  and  even  by 
the  Fatimites.  who  held  the  sovereignty  of  Egypt  and  Northern 
*  Africa.  In  this  manner  a  taste  for  learning  was  coromunicatea 
to  aU  the  Mahometan  states.    From  Bagdad  it  pwised  to  Lairo ; 


-      I    11li«ri 


iiri~tiiriii^iiri«i 


all  number  of  Vingothsi 
lind  retired  to  the  mouii* 
retreats,  they  retaliated 
le  or  the  eighth  century, 
rislian  state,  called  after- 
jeon.  Alphonso  I.,  sur- 
d  as  the  first  founder  of 

ge  of  these  events,  to  ex* 
in  took  possession  of  the 
and  Beziers  (752.)  which 
de  Goth,  named  Osmond, 
no  means  so  easy  a  task, 
ckade  it ;  and  it  was  not 
he  city,  and  the  whole  of 

the  Abassides,  was  soon 
irica.  Ibrahim  Ben-Aglab, 
by  the  Caliph  of  Bagdad, 
eans  to  constitute  himself 
hen  properly  termed  Afri- 
is,  and  Algiers,  formed  a 
ynasiv  of  the  Aglabites  '?^ 

havmg  conquered  Numi- 
lbs  Mogreh,  founded  that 
ies  were  overturned  (about 
1,  son  of  Obeidallah,  who 
J  Fatima,  daughter  of  the 
»f  Northern  Africa  to  his 
i  and  Caliph.    From  him 

Fatimites,  who  extended 
kere  the  foundation  of  Ka- 

they  established  the  seat 
Ifth  century,  was  destroyed 

tpain,  disastrous  as  it  was, 
ijal  to  Europe,  which  owes 
mstance.  The  Abassidian 
s  of  letters  and  arts,  began 
;e  translations  of  the  most 
abic  language.  Their  ex- 
I  of  Cordova,  and  even  by 
jnty  of  Egypt  and  Northern 
[earning  was  communicated 
\  Bagdad  it  passed  to  Cairo ; 


rsBioD  n.    A.  D.  800 — 968.  •• 

and  from  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Nile,  it  tpw^ 
itself  as  far  as  the  Tagus.    Mathematics,  *  Astronomy,  Che- 
mistry, Medicine,  Botany,  and  Materia  Medica,  were  the  aci- 
ences  which  the  Arabians  affected  chiefly  to  cultivate.    They 
excelled  also  in  poetry,  and  in  the  ai  of  embodying  the  fictions 
of  imagination  in  the  most  agreeable  narratives.    Rhaaes,  Aver- 
roes,  Aviceiina,  are  among  the  number  of  their  celebrated  phi- 
losophers and  physicians.     Elmacin,  Abulfeda,  Abulpharagius, 
and  Bobadiii,  as  hUtorians,  have  become  famous  to  all  posterity. 
Thus  Spain,  under  the  Mahometans,  by  culuvaling  many 
sciences  little  known  to  the  rest  of  Europe,  became  the  semi- 
nary of  the  Christians  in  the  West,  who  resorted  thither  m 
crowds,  to  prosecute  in  the  schools  of  Cordova  the  study  of 
learning  and  the  liberal  arts."     The  use  of  the  numerical  cha- 
racters, the  manufacture  of  paper,  cotton,  and  ffun-powder, 
were  derived  to  us  from  the  Arabians,  and  especially  from  the 
Arabians  of  Spain.     Agriculture,  manufactures,  and  naviga- 
tion, are  all  equally  indebted  to  the  Arabians.     They  gave  a 
new  impulse  to  the  commerce  of  the  Indies ;  from  the  Persian 
Gulf  thev  extended  their  trade  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  to  the  borders  of  the  Black  Sea.     Tbeir  carpets, 
and  embroideries  in  gold  and  silver,  their  cloths  of  silk,  and  their 
manufactures  in  steel  and  leather,  maintained  for  years  a  ce- 
lebrity and  a  perfection  unknown  to  the  other  nations  of  Europe. 


CHAPT»"-R   in. 

PERIOD   II. 

From  Charlemagne  to  Ottio  the  Great,    a.  d.  800—968. 

The  reign  of  Charles  the  Great  forms  a  remarkable  epoch  in 
the  history  of  Europe.  That  prince,  who  succeeded  his  father 
Pepin  (768.)  eclipsed  all  his  predecessors,  by  the  superiority  of 
his  genius,  as  well  as  by  the  wisdom  and  vigour  of  his  admin- 
istration. Under  him  the  monarchy  of  the  Franks  was  raised 
to  the  highest  pinnacle  of  glory.  He  would  have  been  an  ac- 
complished prince,  and  worthy  of  being  commemorated  as  the 
beuefactor  of  mankind,  had  he  known  how  to  restrain  his  im- 
moderate thirst  for  conquest. 

He  carried  his  victorious  arms  into  the  centre  of  Gennany ; 
and  subdued  the  warlike  nation  of  the  Saxons,  whose  tomtones 
extended  from  the  Lower  Rhine,  to  the  Elbe  and  the  Baltie 
sea.  Alter  a  bloody  war  of  thirty-three  years,  he  coinpeUed 
them  to  receive  his  yoke,  and  to  embrace  Christianity,  by  tha 


|j,v  • 


OIAPTSB  m. 


BMM  which  he  concluded  with  them  (803)  at  Salts  on  the 
8«bL  The  bishoprics  of  Monster,  Osnaburg,  Minden,  Pader* 
bora,  Verden,  Bremen,  Hildesheim,  and  Halberatadt,  owe  their 
origin  to  this  prince.  Several  of  the  Slavonian  nation*,  the 
Abotrites  (789,)  the  Wilaians  (806.)  the  Sorabians  (906.)  the 
Bdiemians  (81 1,)  &c.,  acknowledged  themselves  his  tributaries ; 
and  by  a  treaty  of  pence  which  he  concluded  with  Hemming, 
King  of  Jutland,  he  fixed  Uie  river  Eyder,  as  the  northern 
limit  of  his  empire  against  the  Danes.  Besides  these,  the 
powerful  monarchy  of  the  Avars,'  which  comprehended  all  the 
countries  known  in  modern  times  by  the  names  of  Austria, 
Hungary,  Transylvania,  Sclavonia,  Dalmatia  and  Croatia,  was 
compleiely  subverted  by  bim  (791 1)  and  he  likewise  despoiled 
the  Arabians  of  all  that  part  of  Spain  which  is  situated  between 
the  Pyrenees  and  the  Ebro  (796,)  as  also  of  Corsica,  Sardinia, 
and  the  Balearic  Isles.  In  Spain  he  established  military  com- 
manders  under  the  title  of  margravn. 

Of  these  conquests,  the  one  that  deserves  the  most  particu- 
lar attention  is  that  of  Italy,  and  the  kingdom  uf  the  Lombards. 
At  the  solicitation  of  Pope  Adrian  I.,  Charles  undertook  an  ex- 
pedition against  the  last  of  the  Lombard  kings.  He  besieged 
that  prince  in  his  capital  at  Pavia ;  and  having  made  him  pri- 
soner, after  a  long  siege,  he  shut  him  up  in  con6netnent  for  the 
rest  of  his  days,  and  incorporated  his  dominions  with  the  mo- 
narchy of  the  Franks.  The  Dukes  of  Benevento,  who,  as 
vassals  of  the  Lombard  kings,  then  occupied  the  greater  part  of 
Lower  Italy,  were  at  the  same  time  compelled  to  acknowledge 
the  sovereignty  of  the  conquerors,  who  allowed  them  to  exer- 
cise their  herediury  rights,  on  condition  of  ih^-ir  paying  an 
annual  tribute.  The  only  places  in  this  purt  of  Italy  that  re 
mained  unsubdued,  were  the  maritime  lowns,  of  which  the 
Givekii  still  found  means  to  maintain  the  possession. 

In  order  to  secure  the  conquest  of  this  country,  as  well  as  to 
protect  it  against  the  incursions  of  the  Arabians,  Charles  estab- 
liahed  several  marches  and  military  stations,  such  as  the 
marches  of  Frinli,  Tarenio,  Turin,  Liguira,  Teti,  &c.  The 
downfall  of  the  Lombards,  put  an  end  to  the  republican  govern- 
ment of  the  Romans.  During  the  blockade  of  Pavia,  Charles 
having  gone  to  Rome  to  be  present  at  the  feast  of  Easter  (774,) 
was  received  there  with  all  the  honours  due  to  an  Exarch 
and  a  Patrician ;  and  there  is  incontestable  proof  that  he  after- 
wards received,  under  that  title,  the  rights  of  sovereignty  over 
Bome  and  the  Ecclesiastical  States. 

The  Patrician  dignity,  instituted  by  Constantino  the  Great, 
ranksd,  in  the  Greek  empire,  next  after  that  of  emperor.    It  was 


•mUm 


'W' 


I  (803)  at  Salti  on  the 
inaburg,  Minden,  Padsr- 
1  Halwrstadt,  owe  their 

Slavonian  nation*,  the 
he  Sorabiane  (S06,)  the 
lemselres  his  tributaries ; 
tcluded  with  Hemming, 
Eiyder,  as  the  northern 
es.  Besides  these,  the 
ch  comprehended  all  the 
f  the  names  of  Austria, 
ilmatia  and  Croatia,  was 
lid  he  likewise  despoiled 
rhich  is  situated  between 
Iso  of  Corsica,  Sardinia, 
istablishcd  military  com- 
t, 

iserves  the  most  particu* 
ngciom  of  the  Lombards. 
Charles  undertook  an  ex- 
ird  kings.  He  besieged 
d  having  made  him  pri- 
up  in  con6nement  for  the 
dominions  with  the  mo- 

of  Benevento,  who,  as 
:upied  the  greater  part  of 
)mpelled  to  acknowledge 

0  allowed  them  to  exer- 
ition  of  llieir  paying  an 
this  pun  of  liniy  that  re 
me  towns,  of  which  the 
the  possession. 

his  country,  as  well  as  to 

1  Arabians,  Charles  estab- 
V  stations,  such  as  the 
Liguira,  Teti,  ice.  The 
to  the  republican  govern- 
ockade  of  Pavia,  Charles 
the  feast  of  Easter  (774,) 
nours  due  to  an  £xarch 
(table  proof  that  he  after- 
•ights  of  sovereignty  over 

y  Constantino  the  Great, 
r  that  of  emperor.    It  was 


mioD  n.    A.  D.  80O— M9.  6f 

of  such  consideration,  that  even  barbarian  kings,  the  destroyers 
of  the  ancient  Ronum  empire  in  the  West,  became  candidates 
for  this  honour  at  the  Court  of  Constantinople.  The  exarchs 
of  Ravenna  were  generally  invested  with  it,  and  exercised  under 
this  title,  rather  than  that  of  exarch  or  ffovemor,  the  authority 
which  they  enjoyed  at  Rome.  Pope  Stephen  II.  had,  twenty 
years  before,  conferred  the  patriciate  on  Pepin  and  his  sons ; 
although  these  princes  appear  never  to  have  exercised  the  righti 
regarding  it  merely  as  an  honorary  title,  uo  long  at  least  as  the 
kingdom  of  the  Lombards  separated  them  from  Rome  and  the 
States  of  the  Church.  Charles  no  sooner  saw  himself  master 
of  that  kingdom,  than  he  affected  to  add  to  his  titles  of  King  of 
the  Franks  and  Lombards  that  of  Patrician  of  the  Romans ;  and 
besan  to  exercise  over  Rome  and  the  Ecclesiastical  States  those 
ri^ts  of  supremacy  which  the  Greek  emperors  and  exarchs  had 
enjoyed  before  him. 

This  prince  returned  to  Rome  towards  the  end  of  the  vear 
800,  in  order  to  inquire  into  a  conspiracy  which  some  of  the 
Roman  nobility  had  concerted  asainst  the  life  of  Pope  Leo  III. 
The  whole  afllair  having  been  discussed  in  his  presence,  and 
the  innocence  of  the  Pope  clearly  established,  Charles  went  tO 
assist  at  the  solemn  mass  which  was  celebrated  in  St.  Peter's 
Church  on  Christmas  day  (800.)  The  Pope,  anxious  to  show 
him  some  public  testimony  of  his  jgratitude,  chose  the  moment 
when  the  prince  was  on  his  knees  at  the  foot  of  the  grand  altar, 
to  put  the  imperial  crown  on  his  head,  and  cause  him  to  be  pro- 
claimed to  the  people  Emperor  of  the  Romans. 

From  this  affair  must  be  dated  the  revival  of  the  Roman  Em- 

Sire  in  the  West, — a  title  which  had  been  exriact  for  three  hun« 
red  years.  The  emperors  of  the  East  whi<,  during  that  inter* 
val,  had  continued  exclusively  in  the  enjoyment  of  that  title, 
appeared  to  have  some  reason  for  opposing  an  innovation  which 
mi^ht  eventually  become  prejudicial  to  thent.  The  contest 
which  arose  on  this  subject  between  the  twt  omperors,  was  at 
length  (803)  terminated  by  treaty.  The  Greek  emperors  recog- 
nised the  new  dignity  of  Charles  (812 ;)  and  on  these  conditions 
they  were  allowed  to  retain  those  possessions,  which  they  still 
held  by  a  feeble  tenure  in  Italy. 

In  thus  maintaining  the  imperial  dignity  against  the  Greek 
emperors,  Charles  added  nothing  to  his  real  power ;  he  acquired 
from  it  no  new  right  over  the  dismembered  provinces  of  the 
Western  empire,  the  state  of  which  had,  for  a  long  time  past, 
been  fixed  by  specific  regulations.  He  did  not  even  augment 
his  authority  over  Rome,  where  he  continued  to  exercise  th« 

e* 


H  aurtu*  ta. 

Mun«  righu  of  superiority  under  the  title  of  emperor,  which  he 

hitd  formerly  done  under  that  of  patrician.  j m      . 

This  prince,  whose  genius  soared  beyond  his  age,  did  not 

Sir*  merely  as  a  warrior  and  a  conqueror;  he  was  wsp  «  !«• 
later,  and  a  lealous  potron  of  letters.     By  the  laws  which  he 
pablished  under  the  title  of  CapitiUaries,  he  reformed  several 
iibases,  and  introduced  new  ideas  of  order  and  justice.    Com- 
missioners  nominated  by  himself,  were  charged  to  trevel  through 
the  prorinces,  to  superintend  the  execution  of  the  laws,  listen 
to  the  complaints  of  the  people,  and  render  justice  to  each 
without  disUnction  ^nd  without  partiality.     He  conceived  like- 
wise the  idea  of  establishing  a  unifdrmily  of  weights  and  mea- 
sures throughout  the  empire.    Some  of  the  laws  of  that  great 
man.  however,  indicate  a  disposiUon  tinctured  with  the  "J™' 
nam  and  superstition  of  his  age.     The  Judgments  of  God  are 
expressly  held  by  him  to  be  legal  tests  of  right  and  wrong,  and 
the  greater  part  of  crimes  expiable  by  money.     By  a  general 
law,  which  hVpassed  in  779,  introducing  the  payment  of  eccle- 
siastical tithes,  and  which  he  extended  to  the  vanquished  Saxons 
(791,)  he  alienated  thti  affections  of  that  people ;  and  the  code 
which  he  dictated  on  this  occasion,  is  remarkable  for  its  atrocity ; 
which  their  repeated  revolts,  and  frequent  returns  to  paganism. 

**A*  to  htl'itronage  and  love  of  letters,  this  is  attested  by  the 
numerous  schools  which  he  founded,  and  the  encouragements 
he  held  out  to  them ;  as  well  as  the  attention  he  showed  in  in- 
viting to  his  court,  the  most  celebrated  learned  men  from  every 
country  in  Europe.     He  formed  them  into  a  kind  of  academy, 
or  literary  society,  of  which  he  was  himself  a  member.     When 
at  an  advanced  age,  he  received  instruction  in  rhetoric,  logic 
and  astronomy,  from  the  famous  Alcuin,  an  Englishman,  to 
whom  he  was  much  attached.     He  endeavoured  also  to  improve 
hw  vernacular  tongue,  which  was  the   Teutonic,  or  Itngm 
Francica,  by  drawing  up  a  grammar  of  that  language,  giving 
German  names  to  the  months  and  the  winds,  which  had  not  yet 
received  them ;  and  in  making  a  collection  of  the  military  songs 
of  the  ancient  Germans.    He  extended  an  equal  P'^'fction  to 
the  arts,  more  especially  architecture,  a  taste  for  which  he  had 
imbibed  in  Italy  and  Rome.      Writers  of  those  times  speak 
with  admiration  of  the  palaces  and  edifices  constructed  bvhis 
orders,  at  Ingelhiem,  near  Mentz.  at  Nimeguen,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Waal,  and  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.     These  buildings  were 
adorned  with  numerous  paintings,  as  well  as  marble  and  mosaic 
vrork,  which  he  had  brought  from  Rome  and  Ravenna. 

The  empire  of  Charlemagne,  which  may  bear  a  comparison 


•  of  emperor,  which  ht 

lan. 

yood  hit  age,  did  not 

■ueror ;  he  wan  also  a  ie* 

By  the  laws  which  he 

•iest  he  reformed  several 

der  and  justice.    Com* 

harged  to  irvvel  through 

ution  of  the  laws,  listen 

render  justice  to  each 

ity.     He  conceived  like* 

lity  of  weights  and  mea> 

>f  the  laws  of  that  great 

inctured  with  the  barba- 

B  Judgmtnti  of  God  are 

of  right  and  wrong,  and 

>y  money.     By  a  general 

ng  the  payment  of  eccle* 

to  the  vanquished  Saxons 

lat  people ;  and  the  code 

Bmarkable  for  its  atrocity ; 

uent  returns  to  paganism, 

ers,  this  is  attested  by  the 
and  the  encouragements 
attention  he  showed  in  in- 
d  learned  men  from  every 
n  into  a  kind  of  academy, 
imself  a  member.  When 
itruction  in  rhetoric,  logic 
Icuin,  an  Englishman,  to 
ideavoured  also  to  improve 
the  Teutonic,  or  lingua 
r  of  that  language,  giving 
i  winds,  which  had  not  yet 
tction  of  the  military  songs 
ed  an  equal  protection  to 
',  a  taste  for  which  he  had 
lers  of  those  times  speak 
edifices  constructed  by  his 
^imeguen,  on  the  left  bank 
e.  These  buildings  were 
well  as  marble  and  mosaic 
ime  and  Ravenna, 
ch  may  bear  a  comparison 


iMaMUUb. 


viBioD  u.    A.  0. 800—969.  ft 

as  to  its  extent  with  the  ancient  empire  of  the  West,  embraced 
the  principal  part  of  Europe.  All  Oaul,  Germany,  and  Spain 
as  far  as  tne  Ebro,  Italy  to  Benevento,  several  islands  in  the 
Mediterranean,  with  a  considerable  part  of  Pannonia,  composed 
this  vast  empire,  which,  from  west  to  east,  extended  from  the 
Ebro  to  the  Elbe  and  the  Raab ;  and  from  south  to  north,  from 
the  dutchy  of  Benevento  and  the  Adriatic  Sea  to  the  River  Ey* 
der,  which  formed  the  boundary  between  Germany  and  Denmark. 

In  defining  the  limits  of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne,  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  confound  the  provinces  and  states  incor- 
porated with  the  empire  with  those  that  were  merely  tributary. 
The  former  were  governed  by  officers  who  might  be  recalled  at 
the  will  of  the  prince ;  while  the  latter  were  free  states,  whose 
only  tenure  on  the  empire  was  by  alliance,  and  the  contributions 
they  engaged  to  pay.  Such  was  the  policy  of  this  prince,  that, 
besides  the  marches  or  military  stations  which  he  hadestablished 
on  the  frontiers  of  Germany,  Spain,  and  Italy,  He  chose  to  retain 
on  diflereht  points  of  his  dominions,  nations  who,  under  the 
name  of  tributaries,  enjoyed  the  protection  of  the  Franks,  and 
might  act  as  a  guard  or  barrier  (^inst  the  barbarous  tribes  of 
the  east  and  north,  who  had  long  been  in  the  habit  of  making 
incursions  into  the  western  and  southern  countries  of  Europe. 

Thus  the  dukes  of  Benevento  in  Italy,  who  were  simply  vas- 
sals  and  tributaries  of  the  empire,  supplied  as  it  were  a  rampart 
or  bulwark  against  the  Greeks  and  Arabians;  while  the  Scia- 
vonian  nations  of  Germany,  Pannonia,  Dalmatia,  and  Croatia, 
though  feudatories  or  vassals  of  France,  were  governed,  never- 
theless,  by  their  own  laws,  and  in  general  did  not  even  profess 
the  Christian  religion. 

From  this  brief  sketch  of  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  it  is  easy 
to  perceive,  that  there  was  then  no  single  power  in  Europe  for- 
midable enough  to  enter  into  competition  with  the  empire  of  the 
Franks.  The  monarchies  of  the  north,  Denmark,  Norway,  and 
Sweden,  and  those  of  Poland  and  Russia,  were  not  then  m  ex- 
istence ;  or  had  not  emerged  from  the  thick  darkness  that  still 
covered  those  parts  of  continental  Europe.  England  then  pre- 
sented a  heptarchy  of  seven  confederate  governments,  the  union 
of  which  was  far  from  being  well  consolidated.  The  kings  of 
this  confederacy  were  incessantly  engaged  in  war  with  each 
other ;  and  it  was  not  until  several  years  after  Charlemagne, 
that  Egbert  the  Great,  king  of  Wessex,  prevailing  in  the  contest, 
constituted  himself  King  of  all  England,  in  827. 

The  Mahometan  part  of  Spain,  after  it  was  separated  from 
the  great  empire  of  tne  Caliph's,  was  engaged  in  perpetual  war- 
fare with  the  East.    The  Oinmiades,  sovereigns  of  Cordova, 


68  CHArriB  in. 

far  from  provoking  ihoir  western  neiglibours,  whose  valour  they 
had  already  experienced,  showed  themselves,  on  the  contr&ry, 
attentive  to  preserve  peace  and  good  understandins  with  them. 
The  Greek  emperors,  who  were  continuallv  quarrelling  with  the 
Arabs  and  Bulgarians,  and  agitated  by  factions  and  intestine 
commolions,  could  no  longer  be  an  object  of  suspicion  or  rivalry 
to  the  monarchy  of  the  Franks.  ...        ,  v  • 

Thus  did  the  empire  of  Charlemagne  enjoy  the  glory  of  being 
the  ascendant  power  in  Europe  ;  but  it  did  not  long  sustain  its 
original  splendor.     It  would  have  required  a  man  of  extraordi- 
nary talents,  to  manage  the  reins  of  a  government  so  extensive 
and  so  complicated.    Louis-le-Debonnaire,  or  the  Gentle,  the 
son  and  successor  of  Charles,  did  not  possess  a  single  quahfi- 
cation  proper  to  govern  the  vast  dominions  which  his  father  had 
bequeathed  to  him.    As  impolitic  as  he  was  weak  and  super- 
stitious, he  had  not  the  art  of  making  himself  either  loved  or 
feared  by  his  subjects.    By  the  imprudent  partition  of  his  domi- 
Dions  between  his  sons,  which  he  made  even  in  his  lifetime,  he 
planted  with  his  own  hand  those  seeds  of  discord  in  his  family, 
which  accelerated  the  downfaU  of  the  empire.    The  civil  wars 
which  had  commenced  in  his  reign  continued  after  his  death. 
Louis,  sumamed  the  German,  and  Charles  the  Bald,  combined 
against  their  elder  brother  Lothaire,and  defeated  him  at  the  fa- 
mous battle  of  Fontenay  in  Burgundy  (841.)  where  all  the  flower 
of  the  ancient  nobility  perished.  Louis  and  Charles,  victorious  in 
this  engagement,  obliged  their  brother  to  take  refuge  in  Itdy. 
They  next  marched  to  Strasbourg,  where  they  renewed  their  alli- 
ance (842.)  and  confirmed  it  by  oath  at  the  head  of  their  troops. 
These  princes  were  on  the  point  of  dividing  the  whole  mo- 
narchy between  them,  when,  by  the  interference  of  the  nobility, 
they  became  reconciled  to  their  elder  brother,  and  concluded  a 
treaty  with  him  at  Verdun  (843,)  which  finally  completed  the 
division  of  the  empire.     By  this  formal  distribution  Lothaire 
retained  the  imperial  dignity,  with  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  the 
provinces  situated  between  the  Rhone,  the  Saone,  the  Meuse, 
the  Scheld,  the  Rhine,  and  the  Alps.     Louis  had  all  Germany 
beyond  the  Rhine,  and  on  this  side  of  the  river,  the  cantons  of 
Mayence,  Spire,  and  Worms;  and,  lastly,  all  that  part  of  Gaul 
which  extends  from  the  Scheld,  the  Meuse,  the  Saone,  and  the 
Rhone,  to  the  Pyrenees,  fell  to  the  lot  of  Charles,  whose  division 
also  comprehended  the  March  of  Spain,  consisting  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Barcelona,  and  the  territories  which  Charlemagne  had 
conquered,  beyond  the  Pyrenees.  ,       t. 

It  is  with  this  treaty,  properly  speakinjp:,  that  modem  !•  ranee 
commences,  which  is  but  a  department  of  the  ancient  empire  of 


T 


wun,  whon  vilour  they 
itelvet,  on  th«  contr&ry. 
oderatMidinff  with  them, 
lally  quarrelling  with  the 
ty  (actions  and  intestine 
)ct  of  suspicion  or  rivalry 

)  enjoy  the  glory  of  being 
t  did  not  long  sustain  its 
lired  a  man  of  extraordi* 
government  so  extensive 
aire,  or  the  Gentle,  the 

possess  a  single  qualifi* 
ions  which  his  father  had 
lie  was  weak  and  super* 

himself  either  loved  or 
ent  partition  of  his  domi* 
e  even  in  his  lifetime,  he 

of  discord  in  his  family, 

jjmpire.  The  civil  wars 
ontmued  after  his  death, 
srles  the  Bald,  combined 
id  defeated  him  at  the  fa- 
841,)  where  all  the  flower 

and  Charles,  victorious  in 
ir  to  take  refuge  in  Italy. 
)re  they  renewed  their  alii- 

the  head  of  their  troops.* 
r  dividing  the  whole  mo* 
iterference  of  the  nobility, 

brother,  and  concluded  a 
ich  finally  completed  the 
mal  distribution  Lothaire 
I  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  the 
le,  the  Saone,  the  Meuse, 
Louis  had  all  Germany 
r  the  river,  the  cantons  of 
istly,  all  that  part  of  Gaul 
Aeuse,  the  Saone,  and  the 
of  Charles,  whose  division 
ain,  consisting  of  the  pro- 
3  which  Charlemagne  had 

ikinjp[,  that  modem  France 
nt  ofthe  ancient  empire  of 


mn 


■MMBlBaifB 


riiioD  n.    A.  D.  800—968.  •• 

the  Franks,  or  monarchy  of  Chnrlomagne.  For  a  long  time  it 
retained  the  boundaries  which  the  conference  at  Verdun  had 
assigned  it ;  and  whatever  it  now  possesses  beyond  thewe  limits, 
was  the  acquisition  of  conouests  which  it  hn«  mnde  since  the  four- 
teenth century.  Charles  tne  Bald  wns  in  fact  then  the  first  King 
of  France,  and  it  his  from  him  thnt  the  series  of  her  kings  com- 
mences. It  was  moreover  under  this  prince  thnt  the  povern- 
ment  of  the  Neustrians  or  Western  Franks  assumed  a  new 
aspect.  Before  his  time  it  was  entirely  of  a  Frankisli  orGermon 
constitution ;  the  manners  ond  customs  of  the  conq-.terors  of 
Gnul  every  where  pretlominoted  ;  their  language  (the  lingita 
Francica)  was  that  of  the  court  and  the  governuient.  But  after 
the  dismemberment  of  which  we  have  spoken,  the  Gauls  im- 
ported it  into  Neuslria  or  Western  France ;  the  customs  and 
popular  language  were  adopted  by  the  court,  and  hnd  no  small 
influence  on  the  government.  This  language,  which  was  then 
known  by  the  name  ofthe  Roman  or  Romance,  polished  by  the 
refinements  of  the  court,  asiumed  by  'degrees  a  new  and  purer 
form,  and  in  course  of  time  became  tlio  parent  of  the  modern 
French.  It  vns  therefore  nt  this  period,  viz.  the  reign  of 
Charles  tLe  Bald,  that  the  We.stern  Franks  began,  properly 
speaking,  to  be  a  distinct  nation,  and  exchanged  their  more 
ancient  appellation  for  that  of  French;  the  name  by  which  they 
are  still  known. 

At  this  same  period  Germany  was,  for  the  first  time,  embo- 
died into  a  monarchy,  having  its  own  particular  kings.  Louis 
the  German,  was  the  first  monarch  of  Germany,  as  Charles  the 
Bald  was  of  France.  The  kingdom  of  Louis  for  n  long  time 
was  called  Eastern  France,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Western 
kingdom  of  that  name,  which  henceforth  exclusively  retained 
the  name  of  France. 

The  empire  of  Charlemagne,  which  the  treaty  of  Verdun  had 
divided,  was  for  a  short  space  reunited  (884)  under  Charles, 
surnamed  the  Fat,  younger  son  of  Louis  the  German,  and  King 
of  Germany  ;  but  that  prince,  too  feeble  to  support  so  great  a 
weight,  was  deposed  by  his  German  subjects  (887,)  and  their 
example  was  speedily  followed  by  the  French  and  the  Italians. 
The  vast  empire  of  the  Franks  was  thus  dismembered  for  ever 
(888,)  and  besides  the  kingdoms  of  France,  Germany,  and  Italy, 
it  gave  birth  to  three  new  States — the  kingdoms  of  Lorraine, 
Burgundy,  and  Navarre. 

The  kingdom  of  Lorraine  took  its  name  frorn  Lothaire  II., 
younger  son  of  the  Emperor  Lothaire  I.,  who,  in  the  division 
which  he  made  of  his  estates  among  his  sons  (866,)  gave  to  this 
Lodiairc  the  provinces  situated  between  the  Rhine,  the  Meuse. 


i 


eHAPTEft  m. 

and  the  Scheid,  kaown  since  under  the  name  of  Lorraine,  Al- 
i»».  Treves,  Cologne,  Juliers,  Liege,  and  the  Low  Countries. 
mIb  deaiu  of  Lothaire  IL.  who  left  no  male  or  leptimate 
heirs,  his  kingdom  was  divided  by  the  treaty  of  Procaspis  (870.) 
i  "o  wo  equal  portions,  one  of  which  wa.  assigned  to  Lou.s 
the  Germa.",  and  the  other  to  Charles  the  Bald.'  By  a  subse- 
q«m  treaty,  concluded  (879)  between  the  sons  ?f  Lo»".  «"• 
named  the  Stammerer,  King  of  France,  and  Louis  the  Young. 
King  of  Germany,  the  French  div  sion  of  Lorraine  was  ceded 
to  this  latter  prince,  who  thus  reunited  the  whole  of  that  king- 
dor  Ii  remained  incorporated  with  Germany,  at  the  time  when 

the  last  dismemberment  of  that  monarchy  took  place.  (8»5,)  on 
he  deposition  of  Charles  the  Fat.  Arnuph.  King  of  Germany, 
and  successor  of  Charles,  bestowed  the  kingdom  of  Lorraine  on 
Swentibald  his  natural  son.  who  after  a  reign  of  five  years,  was 
deoosed  by  Louis,  surnamed  the  Infant,  son  and  successor  of 
ArnuTph.  \ouis  dying  without  issue.  (912.)  Charles  the  Sun- 
Die  Kins  of  France,  took  advantage  of  the  commotions  in  Ger- 
many, to  put  himself  in  possession  of  that  kingdom,  which  was 
at  length  finally  reunited  to  the  Germanic  crown  by  Henry, 
surnamed  the  Fowler.  ,  „  , 

Two  new  kingdoms  appeared  under  the  name  of  Burgundy, 
viz  Provence  or  Ci.jurane  Burgundy,  and  Tran.jurane  Bur- 
Bundy.     Tiie  founder  of  the  former  was  a  nobleman  named 
losoJ  whose  sister  Charles  the  Bald  had  e«PO«f.«<'-.  .  ^leva  jj 
by  the  king,  his  brother-in-law,  to  the  highest  dignities  in  the 
2x1  he  was  created,  in  succession,  Count  of  Vienna,  Duke  of 
Provence,  Duke  of  Italy,  and  Prime  Minister,  and  even  obtained 
in  marriage  the  Princess  Irmengarde,  daughter  of  Louis  IL, 
Emperor  and  King  of  Italy.     Instigated  by  this  princess,  he  did 
not  scruple  to  raise  his  amotions  views  to  the  throne.     The 
death  of  Louis  the  Stammerer,  and  the  troubles  that  ensued, 
afforded  him  an  opportunity  of  attaching  to  his  interest  most  of 
the  bishops  in  those  countries,  intrusted  to  his  government.     In 
an  assembly  which  he  held  at  Mantai  le  in  Dauphin^,  (879.)  he 
engaged  them  by  oath  to  confer  on  him  the  royal  dignity.   The 
schedule  of  this  election,  with  the  signatures  of  the  bishops  affix- 
ed, informs  us  distinctly  of  the  extent  of  this  new  kingdom, 
whiJh  comprehended  F'anche-Comtd,  Ma,on  Chalons-sur-Sa. 
one,  Lyons,  Vienne  and  its  depandencies,  Agde,  Viviers,  Usez, 
with  their  dependencies  in  Languedoc,  Provence,  and  a  oart  of 
Savoy      Boson  caused  himself  to  be  anointed  king  at  Lyons, 
by  the  archbishop  of  that  city.     He  maintained  P-""';;]!  "^ 
his  usurped  dominions,  in  spite  of  the  combmed  efforts  which 
were  maTe  by  the  kings  of  Prance  and  Germany  to  reduce  him 
to  Bubiection. 


the  name  of  Lomine,  Al« 
,  and  Ae  Low  Countries, 
eft  no  male  or  legitimate 
5  treaty  of  Procaspis  (870,) 
ch  was  assigned  to  Louis 
s  the  Bald.'  By  a  subse- 
sen  the  sons  of  Louis,  sur- 
jce,  and  Louis  the  Young, 
ion  of  Lorraine  was  ceded 
•d  the  whole  of  that  king- 
Germany,  at  the  time  when 
irchy  took  place,  (896,)  on 
Lrnulph,  King  of  Germany, 
lie  kingdom  of  Lorraine  on 
r  a  reign  of  five  years,  was 
fant,  son  and  successor  of 
le,  (912,)  Charles  the  Siin- 
of  the  commotions  in  Ger- 
if  that  kingdom,  which  was 
ermanic  crown  bji  Henry, 

er  the  name  of  Burgundy, 
dy,  and  Transjurane  Sur- 
er was  a  nobleman  named 
d  had  espoused.     Elevated 
lie  highest  dignities  in  the 
,  Count  of  Vienna,  Duke  of 
Minister,  and  even  obtained 
irde,  daughter  of  Louis  II., 
ated  by  this  princess,  he  did 
I  views  to  the  throne.     The 
i  the  troubles  that  ensued, 
:hirig  to  his  interest  most  of 
sted  to  his  government.     In 
ttille  in  Dauphin^,  (879,)  he 
him  the  royal  dignity.   The 
gnatures  of  the  bishops  afhx- 
ttent  of  this  new  kingdom, 
>t^,  Ma^on,  Chalons-sur-Sa- 
encies,  Agde,  Viviers,  Usez, 
doc,  Provence,  and  a  part  of 
be  anointed  king  at  Lyons, 
le  maintained  possession  of 
the  combined  efforts  which 
and  Germany  to  reduce  him 


mioD  n.    A.  ».  80O— 968. 


»t 


The  example  of  Boson  was  followed  soon  after  by  Rodolph, 
governor  of  Transjurane  Burgundy,  and  related  by  the  female 
side  to  the  Carlovingians.  He  was  proclaimed  kmg,  and  crown- 
ed at  St.  Maurice  in  the  Valais ;  and  his  new  kmgdom,  situa- 
ted between  Mount  Jura  and  the  Penine  Alps,  contained  Swit- 
zerland,  as  far  as  the  River  Reuss,  the  Valais,  and  a  part  of 
Savoy.  The  death  of  Boson,  happening  about  this  time,  fur- 
nished Rodolph  with  a  favourable  opportunity  of  extending  his 
frontiers,  and  seiaing  a  part  of  the  country  of  Burgundy. 

These  two  kingdoms  were  afterwards  (930)  united  into  one. 
Hugo,  king  of  Italy,  exercised  at  that  time  the  guardianship  of 
the  young  Constantine,  his  relation,  the  son  of  Louis,  and  grand- 
son of  Boson.  The  Italians,  discontented  under  the  government 
of  Hugo,  and  having  devolved  their  crown  on  Rodolph  II.,  kmg 
of  Transjurane  Burgundy,  Hugo,  in  order  to  maintain  himself 
on  the  throne  of  Italy,  and  exclude  Rodolph,  ceded  '<»  h»m  t^e 
district  of  Provence,  and  the  kmgdom  of  his  royal  ward.  1  hus 
united  in  the  person  of  Rodolph,  these  two  kingdoms  passed  to 
his  descendants,  viz.  Conrad,  his  son,  and  Rodolph  111.,  hia 
grandson.  These  princes  are  styled,  in  their  titles,  sometimes 
Kings  of  Burgundy:  sometimes  Kings  of  Vtenne  or  Aries ; 
sometines  Kings  of  Prove?ice  and  Allemania.  Jhey  lost,  in 
course  of  time,  their  possessions  beyond  the  Rhone  and  the 
Saone;  and  in  the  time  of  Rodolph  III.,  this  kmgdom  had  for 
its  boundaries  the  Rhine,  the  Rhone,  the  Saone,  the  Reuss,  and 

Navarre,  the  kingdom  next  to  be  mentioned,  known  among 
the  ancients  under  the  name  of  Vasconia,  was  one  of  the  pro- 
vinces beyond  the  Pyrenees,  which  Charlemagne  had  conquered 
from  the  A  '  3.  Among  the  counts  or  wardens  of  the  Marches, 
called  by  ihe  Germans  Margraves,  which  he  established,  the 
most  remarkable  were  those  of  Barcelona  in  Catalonia,  Jacca 
in  Arragon,  and  Pampeluna  in  Navarre.  All  these  Spanish 
Marches  were  comprised  within  Western  France,  and  within 
the  division  which  fell  to  the  share  of  Charies  the  Bald,  on  the 
dismembwment  of  that  monarchy  among  the  sons  of  Louis  the 
Gentle.  The  extreme  imbecility  of  that  prince,  and  the  calami- 
ties of  his  reign,  were  the  causes  why  the  Navarrese  revolted 
from  France,  and  erected  themselves  into  a  free  and  indepen- 
dent state.  It  appears  also,  that  they  were  implicated  in  the 
defection  of  Aquitain  (853,)  when  it  threw  off  the  yoke  of 
Charles  the  Bald.  Don  Garcias,  son  of  the  Count  Don  Gar- 
cias,  and  grandson  of  Don  Sancho,  is  generally  reckoned  the 
first  of  their  monarchs,  that  usurped  the  tide  of  Ktng  of  Pam^ 
pdmuh  (868.)    He  and  his  successors  in  the  kingdom  of  «a- 


If  ettAfTKK  tn. 

nure.  possessed,  at  the  8«me  time,  the  province  of  '««  in 
Anagon.  The  CounU  of  Barcelona  were  the  onlv  Spanish 
dependencies  that,  for  many  centuries,  continued  to  acknowledge 
the  sovereignty  of  the  Kings  of  France.  ... 

On  this  part  of  our  subject,  it  only  remains  for  us  to  point  out 
the  causes  that  conspired  to  accelerate  the  downfall  of  the  em- 
pire  of  the  Franks.  Among  these  we  may  reckon  the  inconve* 
niences  of  the  feudal  system,— a  system  as  unfitted  for  the  pur- 
poses of  internal  administration,  as  it  was  incompatible  with  the 
maxims  that  ought  to  rule  a  great  empire.  The  abuse  of  fiefs 
was  carried  so  far  by  the  Franks,  that  almost  all  property  had 
become  feudal ;  and  not  only  grants  of  land,  and  portions  of 
laree  estates,  but  governments,  dukedoms,  and  counties,  were 
conferred  and  held  under  the  title  of  fiefs.  The  consequence 
of  this  was,  that  the  great,  by  the  allurementof  fiefs  or  benefices, 
became  devoted  followers  of  the  kings,  while  the  body  of  the 
nation  sold  themselves  as  retainers  of  the  great.  Whoever  re- 
fused this  vassalage  was  despised,  and  had  neither  favour  nor 
honour  to  expect.*  By  this  practice,  the  liberty  of  the  subject 
was  abridged  without  augmenting  the  royal  authority.  The 
nobles  soon  became  so  powerful,  by  the  liberality  of  their  kings, 
and  the  number  of  their  vassals  they  found  means  to  procure, 
that  they  had  at  length  the  presumption  to  dictate  laws  to  the 
sovereign  himself.  By  degrees,  the  obligations  which  they 
owed  to  the  state  were  forgotten,  and  those  only  recognised 
which  the  feudal  contract  imposed.  This  new  bond  of  alhance 
was  not  long  in  opening  a  door  to  licentiousness,  as  by  a  natural 
consequence,  it  was  imagined,  that  the  feudal  superior  might  be 
changed,  whenever  there  was  a  possibility  of  charging  him  with 
a  violation  of  his  engagements,  or  of  that  reciprocal  fidelity  which 

he  owed  to  his  vassals.  ,      ...      j      l     i    . 

A  system  like  this,  not  only  overturned  public  order,  by  plant- 
ing  the  germs  of  corruption  in  every  part  of  the  internal  admi- 
nistration ;  it  was  still  more  defective  with  regard  to  the  external 
operations  of  government,  and  directly  at  variance  with  all  plans 
of  aggrandizement  or  of  conauest.  As  war  was  earned  on  by 
means  of  slaves  or  vassals  only,  it  is  easy  to  perceive  that  such 
armies  not  being  kept  constantly  on  foot,  were  with  difficulty  put 
in  motion ;  that  they  could  neither  prevent  intestine  rebellion, 
nor  be  a  protection  against  hostile  invasion ;  and  that  conquests 
made  by  means  of  such  troops,  must  be  lost  with  the  same  filci- 
lity  that  they  are  won.  A  permanent  rtilitary,  fortresses  and 
ffi^sons,  such  as  we  find  in  modem  tactics,  were  altogether 
unknown  among  the  Franks.  These  politic  insiitutions,  indis- 
pensable  in  great  empires,  were  totally  repugnant  to  the  genius 


1 


I. 

the  province  of  Jaeca  in 
la  were  the  only  Spanish 
I,  continued  to  acknowledge 
ice. 

remains  for  us  to  point  out 
te  the  downfall  of  the  em> 
w  may  reckon  the  inconve* 
lem  as  unfitted  for  the  pur« 
i  was  incompatible  with  the 
mpire.  The  abuse  of  fiefs 
hat  almost  all  property  had 
ts  of  land,  and  portions  of 
[edoms,  and  counties,  were 
jf  fiefs.  The  consequence 
remenCof  fiefs  or  benefices, 
ngs,  while  the  body  of  the 
)f  the  great.  Whoever  re* 
md  had  neither  favour  nor 
!,  the  liberty  of  the  subject 
the  royal  authority.  The 
the  liberality  of  their  kings, 
(y  found  means  to  procure, 
ption  to  dictate  laws  to  the 
he  obligations  which  they 
and  those  only  recognised 
This  new  bond  of  alliance 
lentiousness,  as  by  a  natural 
he  feudal  superior  might  be 
ibility  of  charging  him  with 
that  reciprocal  fidelity  which 

amed  public  order,  by  plant- 
y  part  of  the  internal  admi- 
e  with  regard  to  the  external 
tly  at  variance  with  all  plans 
As  war  was  carried  on  by 
s  easy  to  perceive  that  sucn 
foot,  were  with  difficulty  put 
prevent  intestine  rebellion, 
nvasion ;  and  that  conquests 
■X  be  lost  with  the  same  faci* 
lent  niilitary,  fortresses  and 
lem  tactics,  were  altogether 
sse  pclitic  insiitutions,  indis- 
ally  repugnant  to  the  genius 


■#■ 


:M 


f^ 


Flight  (fMAmeU    Fol.  1-f .  00. 


1 


1— f.  60. 


FU.  I— p.  M. 


riuoo  n.    A.  7>.  800—909.  fS 

of  the  German  nationt.  They  did  net  even  know  wliat  is  meant 
by  finances,  or  regular  systems  of  taxation.  Their  kings  had 
no  other  pecuniary  resource  than  the  simple  reVenuea  of  their 
demesnes,  which  served  for  the  maintenance  of  their  court 
Gratuitous  donations,  the  perquisites  of  bed  and  lodging,  finw« 
tlie  tierce  of  which  belonged  to  the  king,  rights  of  custom  and 
»n<l.  added  but  little  to  their  wealth,  and  could  not  be  reckoned 
__  'he  number  of  %tate  resources.  None  but  tributaries,  or 
conquered  nations,  were  subjected  to  the-payment  of  certain  im- 
posts or  assessments ;  from  these  the  Franks  were  exempted ; 
they  would  have  even  regarded  it  as  an  insult  and  a  blow  struck 
at  their  national  liberty,  had  they  been  burdened  with,  a  single 
imposition. 

It  is  obvious,  that  a  government  like  this,  so  disjointed  and 
incoherent  in  all  its  parts,  in  spite  of  the  advantages  which  ac- 
crued to  it  from  nourishing  a  spirit  of  libertv,  and  opposing  a 
sort  of  barrier  against  despotism,  was  nevertheless  far  nota  hetag 
suitable  to  an  empire  of  such  prodigious  extent  as  that  of  the 
Franks.  Charlemagne  had  tried  to  infuse  a  new  vigour  into 
the  state  by  the  wise  laws  which  he  published,  and  the  military 
stations  which  he  planted  on  the  frontiers  of  his  empire.  Baisea, 
by  the  innate  force  of  his  ^nius  above  the  prejudices  of  the  age 
in  which  he  lived,  that  prmce  had  formed  a  s^ystem  capable  of 

Siving  unity  and  consistency  to  the  state,  had  it  been  of  longer 
uration.  But  this  system  fell  to  pieces  and  vanished,  w&a 
no  longer  animated  and  put  in  execution  by  its  author.  Disorder 
and  anarchy  speedily  pualyzed  every  branch  of  the  government, 
and  ultimately  brought  on  the  dismemberment  of  the  empire. 

Another  cause  which  accelerated  the  fall  of  this  vast  empire, 
was  the  territorial  divisions,  practised  by  the  kings,  both  of  the 
Merovingian,  and  the  Carlovingian  race.  Charlemagne  and 
Louis  the  Gentle,  when  they  ordered  the  empire  to  be  divided 
among  their  sons,  never  imagined  this  partition  would  terminate 
in  a  formal  dismemberment  of  the  monarchy.  Their  intention 
was  rather  to  preserve  union  and  amity,  by  means  of  certain 
rights  of  superiority,  which  they  granted  to  their  eldest  sons, 
whom  they  nad  invested  with  the  Imperial  dignity.  But  this 
subordination  of  the  younger  to  their  elder  brothers  was  not  of 
long  continuance ;  and  these  divisions,  besides  naturally  weak- 
ening the  state,  became  a  source  of  perpetual  discord ;  and 
reduced  the  Carlovingian  princes  to  the  necessity  of  courting 
the  grandees,  on  every  emergency ;  and  gaining  their  interest 
by  new  pfts,  or  by  concessions  which  went  to  sap  the  foanda- 
ti'on  of  the  throne. 
This  exorbitant  power  of  the  nobles,  most  plso  be  reckqi^ 
VOL.  z.  7 


-.n-^wiiMKaiinn— tiiiimiwaf  iiiai<Mfi^njtminjMMafnjaitfiajjfc6ii.ji 


i 


OHAPTM  in. 

■taong  the  vumber  of  causes  that  hastened  the  decliite  of  the 
empire.  Dokea  aund  Counts,  besides  being  intrusted  with  the 
juatice  and  police  of  their  respective  governments,  exercised,  at 
the  same  time,  a  military  power,  and  collected  the  revenues  of 
the  Exchequer.  So  many  and  so  diflferent  jurisdictions,  united 
in  one  and  the  same  power,  could  not  but  become  dangerous  to 
the  royal  authority  ;  while  it  facilitated  to  the  nobles  the  means 
of  fortifying  themselves  in  their  governnltehts,  and  breaking,  by 
degrees,  the  unity  of  the  state.  Charlemagne  had  felt  this  in- 
convenience ;  and  he  thought  to  remedy  the  evil,  by  succes- 
sively abolishing  the  (rreat  dutchies,  and  dividing  them  into 
several  counties.  Unfortunately  this  policy  was  not  followed 
out  bv  his  successors,  who  returned  to  the  ancient  practice  of 
creating  dukes  ;  and  besides,  being  educated  and  nurtured  in 
superstition  by  the  priests,  they  ^ut  themselves  wholly  under 
depeiidence  to  bishops  and  ecclesiastics,  who  thus  disposed  of 
the  slate  at  their  pleasure.  The  consequence  was,  that  govern- 
ments, at  first  alterable  only  by  the  will  of  the  King,  passed 
eventually  to  the  children,  or  heirs,  of  those  who  were  merely 
administrators,  or  superintendents,  of  them. 

Charles  the  Bald,  first  King  of  France,  had  the  weakness  to 
constitute  this  dangerous  principle  into  a  standing  law,  in  the 
parliament  which  he  held  at  Chiersi  (877,)  towards  the  close  of 
his  reign.  He  even  extended  this  principle  generally  to  all 
fiefe ;  to  those  that  held  immediately  of  the  crown,  as  well  as  to 
those  which  held  of  laic,  or  ecclesiastical  superiors. 

This  new  and  exorbitant  power  of  the  nobles,  joined  to  the 
injodkioas  partitions  already  mentioned,  tended  to  sow  fresh 
discord  among  the  different  members  of  the  state,  by  exciting  a 
multitude  of  civil  wars  and  domestic  feuds,  which,  by  a  neces- 
sary consequence,  brought  the  whole  body-politic  into  »  "'ate  of 
decay  and  dissolution.  The  history  of  the  successors  of  Charle- 
magne  presents  a  sad  picture,  humiliating  and  distressing  to 
humanity.  Every  page  of  it  is  filled  with  insurrections,  devas- 
tations, and  carnage:  princesj  sprang  from  the  same  blood, 
armed  against  each  other,  breathin|^Miataral  vengeance,  and 
bent  on  mutual  destruction  :  the  i|PN»thority  insulted  and 
despised  by  the  nobles,  who  were  jil|li«baHy  at  war  with  each 
other,  either  to  decide  their  private  qaHman,  or  aggrMdize  them- 
adves  at  the  expense  of  their  neighbours  j  and,  finally,  the  citi- 
itaa  exposed  to  all  kinds  of  oppression,  reduced  to  misery  and 
attvitade,  without  the  hope  or  possibility  of  redressfrom  the 
gOTemment.  Such  was  the  melancholy  situation  of  the  States 
dwt  composed  the  Empire  of  Charlemagne,  when  the  irruption 
'dTBCw  baiharians,  the  Normans  from  the  extremitwa  of  the 


PBBIOD  II.      A.  D.  800— flW. 


7« 


istened  the  decline  of  the 
I  being  intrusted  with  the 
[overnments,  exercised,  at 
collected  the  revenues  of 
erent  jurisdictions,  united 
but  become  dangerous  to 
>d  to  the  nobles  the  means 
rnnfbhts,  and  breaking,  by 
lemagne  had  felt  this  in- 
nedy  the  evil,  bv  succcs- 
and  dividing  them  into 
policy  was  not  followed 
to  the  ancient  practice  of 
sducated  and  nurtured  in 
themselves  wholly  under 
ics,  who  thus  disposed  of 
lequence  was,  that  govern- 
will  of  the  King,  passed 
if  those  who  were  merely 
them. 

ince,  had  the  weakness  to 
ito  a  standing  law,  in  the 
(877,)  towards  the  close  of 
principle  generally  to  all 
of  the  crown,  as  well  as  to 
tical  superiors. 
r  the  nobles,  joined  to  the 
med,  tended  to  sow  fresh 
of  the  state,  by  exciting  a 
:  feuds,  which,  by  a  neces- 
I  body-politic  into  a  state  of 
of  the  successors  of  Charle- 
iliating  and  distressing  to 
with  insurrections,  devas- 
inii  from  the  same  blood, 
latoral  vengeance,  and 
ithority  insulted  and 
rrpvwHLUy  at  war  with  each 
lai^s,  or  aggrandize  them- 
oors ;  and,  finally,  the  citi- 
km,  reduced  to  misery  and 
sibility  of  redress  from  the 
holy  situation  of  the  States 
>magne,  when  the  irruption 
■om  the  extremitiM  of  the 


North,  wid  the  Hungariana  from  the  b^k  settUmMrt*  of  A«», 
exposed  it  afresh  to  U»e  terrible  scourge  of  foreign  invasion. 

The  Normans,  of  German  origin,  and  inhabitmg  ancient 
Scandinavia,  that  is  to  say,  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  modem 
Norway,  began,  towards  the  end  of  the  eighth  century,  to  cover 
the  sea  with  their  ships,  and  to  infest  succesaively  all  the  man- 
time  coasts  of  Europe.*  During  the  space  of  two  hundred  years, 
they  continued  their  incursions  and  devastations,  with  a  fierce- 
ness and  perseverance  that  surpasses  all  imagttiation.  This  phe- 
nomenon, however,  is  easily  explained.if  we  attend  to  the  state 
of  barbarism  in  which  the  inhabitants  of  Scandinavia,  in  general, 
were  at  that  time  plunged.     Despising  agriculture  and  the  arts, 
thev  found  themselves  unable  to  draw  from  fishing  and  the 
chase,  the  necessary  means  even  for  their  scanty  subsistence. 
The  comfortable  circumstances  of  their  neighbours  who  culti- 
vated their  lands,  excited  their  cupidity,  and  invited  t^m  to 
acquire  by  force,  piracy,  or  plunder,  what  they  had  not  sufficient 
skni  to  procure  by  iheir  own  industry.     They  were,  moreover, 
animated  by  a  sort  of  religious  fanaticism,  which  inspired  them 
with  courage  for  the  most  perilous  enterprise.     This  reckless 
superstition  they  drew  from  the  doctrines  of  Odin,  who  was  the 
god  of  their  armies,  the  rewarder  of  valour  and  intrepidity  in 
war,  receiving  into  his  paradise  of  ValhaUa,  the  brave  who  fell 
beneath  the  swords  of  the  enemy  j  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  abode  of  the  wretched,  called  by  them  Helvete,  was  pre- 
pared for  those  who,  abandoned  to  ease  and  efTemimicy,  prefer- 
red a  life  of  tranquillity  to  the  glory  of  arms,  and  the  penis  of 
warlike  adventure.  i     •      •    j 

This  doctrine,  generaUy  diffused  over  all  the  north,  inspired 
the  Scandinavian  youth  with  an  intrepid  and  ferocious  courage, 
which  made  them  brave  all  dangers,  and  consider  the  sangui- 
narv  death  of  warriors  as  the  surest  patn  to  immortaUty.  Often 
did  it  happen  that  the  sons  of  kings,  even  those  who  were 
already  destined  as  successors  to  their  fathers  throne,  volun- 
teered  as  chiefs  of  pirates  and  brigands,  under  the  name  of  dea 
KingM,  solely  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a  name,  and  signato- 
inir  themselves  by  their  maritime  exploits.  ,.    ..  j 

These  piracies  of  the  Normans,  which  at  first  were  limited 
to  the  seas  and  countries  bordering  on  Scandinavia,  won  ex- 
tended over  all  the  western  and  southern  coaste  of  Europe. 
Germany,  the  kingdoms  of  Lorraine,  France,  Engtond,  SScot- 
land,  Ireland,  Spain,  the  Balearic  Isles,  Italy,  Greece,  and  even 
the  shores  of  Africa,  were  exposed  in  their  turn  to  the  insults 
and  the  ravages  of  these  barbarians." 
France  more  especially  suffered  from  their  wcurwons,  und«r 


immimiammmmMmiDt 


mmmm^'r^' 


nurmm. 

the  foeUe  nignt  of  Charles  the  Bdd.  and  Charlea  the  Fat. 
Not  content  with  the  havoc  which  they  made  on  the  coasts, 
A0f  ascended  the  Seine,  the  Loire,  the  Garonne,  and  the  Rhone, 
carrying  fire  and  sword  to  the  very  centre  of  the  kingdom. 
Hantes,  Angers,  Toors,  Blois,  Orleans,  Mons,  Poitiers,  Bour- 
deaox,  Rouen,  Paris,  Sens,  Laon,  Soissons,  and  various  other 
cities,  experienced  the  fury  of  these  invaders.  Paris  was  three 
times  sacked  and  pillaged  by  them.  Robert  the  Strong,  a  scion 
of  the  royal  House  of  Capet,  whom  Charles  the  Bald  had  created 
(861.)  Duke  or  Governor  of  Neustria,  was  killed  in  battle  (866,) 
wuile  combating  with  success  against  the  Normans.  At  length, 
the  tenor  which  they  had  spreaaevery  where  was  such,  that  the 
Flinch,  who  trembled  at  the  verv  name  of  the  Normans,  had 
no  longer  courage  to  encounter  them  in  arms ;  and  in  order  to 
rid  themselves  of  such  formidable  enemies,  they  consented  to 
purchase  their  retreat  by  a  sum  of  money;  a  wretched  and 
feeble  remedy,  which  only  aggravated  the  evil,  by  inciting  the 
inraders,  by  the  hope  of  gain,  to  return  to  the  charge. 

It  is  not  however  at  all  astonishing,  that  France  should  have 
been  exposed  so  long  to  these  incursions,  since,  besides  the  in« 
efficient  state  of  that  monarchy,  she  had  no  vessels  of  her  own 
to  protect  her  coasts.  The  nobles,  occupied  solely  wiih  the 
care  of  augmenting  or  confirming  their  growing  power,  offered 
but  a  feeble  opposition  to  the  Normans,  whose  presence  in  the 
kingdom  caused  a  diversion  favourable  to  their  views.  Some 
of  uem  even  had  no  hesitation  in  joining  the  barbarians,  when 
they  happened  to  be  in  disgrace,  or  when  they  thought  they  had 
reason  to  complain  of  the  government. 

It  was  in  consequence  of  these  numerous  expeditions  overall 
the  seas  of  Europe,  that  the  monarchies  of  the  North  were 
formed,  and  that  the  Normans  succeeded  also  in  founding  several 
other  states.  It  is  to  them  that  the  powerful  monarchy  of  the 
Russians  owes  its  origin ;  Ruric  the  Norman  is  allowed  to  have 
been  its  founder,  towards  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century.'  He 
and  the  grand  dukes  his  successors,  extended  their  conquests 
from  the  Baltic  and  the  White  Sea,  to  the  Euxine  ;  and  during 
the  tenth  century  they  made  the  emperors  of  the  East  to  trem- 
ble on  their  thrones.  In  their  native  style  of  piratical  warfare, 
they  embarked  on  the  Dnieper  or  Borysthenes,  infested  with 
their  fleets  the  coasts  of  the  Black  Sea,  carried  terror  and  dismay 
to  Ae  gates  of  Constantinople,  and  obliged  the  Greek  emperors 
to  pay  them  large  sums  to  redeem  their  capital  from  pillage. 

Ireland  was  more  than  once  on  the  point  of  being  subdued  by 
the  Normans,  during  these  piratical  excursions.  Their  first  in- 
TMion  of  this  island  is  stated  to  have  been  in  the  year  796. 


,  and  Charlea  the  Fat. 
My  made  on  the  coaats, 
Garonne,  and  the  Rhone, 
centre  of  the  kinedom. 
IK,  Mons,  Poitiers,  Bour- 
issons,  and  various  other 
vaders.    Paris  was  three 
[obert  the  Strong,  a  scion 
tries  the  Bald  had  created 
wan  killed  in  battle  (866,) 
the  Normans.  At  length, 
where  was  such,  that  the 
ne  of  the  Normans,  had 
in  arms ;  and  in  order  to 
emies,  they  consented  to 
money;  a  wretched  and 
the  evil,  by  inciting  the 
n  to  the  charge, 
that  France  should  have 
ms,  since,  besides  the  in- 
ii  no  vessels  of  her  own 
occupied  solely  with  the 
ir  growing  power,  offered 
8,  whose  presence  in  the 
lie  to  their  views.     Some 
ling  the  barbarians,  when 
lien  they  thought  they  had 

lerous  expeditions  overall 
;hies  of  the  North  were 
id  also  in  founding  several 
owerful  monarchy  of  the 
Gorman  is  allowed  to  have 
)f  the  ninth  century.'  He 
extended  their  conquests 
}  the  Euxine ;  and  during 
srors  of  the  East  to  trem- 
style  of  piratical  warfare, 
torysthenes,  infested  with 
,  carried  terror  and  dismay 
tliged  the  Greek  emperors 
eir  capital  from  pillage, 
point  of  being  subdued  by 
icorsions.  Their  first  in< 
ave  been  in  the  year  796. 


riiioD  II.    A.  D.  8(M>— 96B.  ff 

Great  ravages  were  committed  by  the  barbarians,  who  eonqtiet- 
ed  or  founded  the  cities  of  Waterford,  Dublin,  ai  Limenck, 
which  they  formed  into  separate  petty  kingdoms.  Ohnstianitv 
was  introduced  among  them  towards  the  middle  of  the  tenth 
century ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  twelfth,  the  time  of  iu  invasion 
by  the  English,  that  they  succeeded  in  expelling  them  from  the 
island,  when  they  were  dispossessed  of  the  cities  of  Waterford 
and  Dublin  (1170)  by  Henry  II.  of  England. 

Orkney,  the  Hebrides,  the  Shetland  and  Faroe  Islands,  and 
the  Isle  of  Man,  were  also  discovered  and  peopled  by  the  Nor- 
mans." Another  colony  of  these  Normans  peopled  Iceland, 
where  they  founded  a  republic  (874.)  which  preserved  its  inde- 
pendence till  neariy  the  middle  of  Che  thirteenth  centunr,  when 
that  island  was  conquered  by  the  Kings  of  Norway.'  Norman- 
dy, in  France,  also  received  its  name  from  this  people.  Charles 
the  Simple,  wishing  to  put  a  check  on  their  continual  incur- 
sions, concluded,  at  St.  Clair-sur-Epte  (892.)  a  treaty  with  Rollo 
or  Rolf,  chief  of  the  Normans,  by  which  he  abandoned  to  them 
all  that  part  of  Neustria  which  reaches  from  the  rivers  Andelle 
and  Aure  to  the  ocean.  To  this  he  added  a  part  of  Vezin, 
situated  between  the  rivers  Andelle  and  Epte  ;  as  also  the  ter- 
ritory of  Bretagne.  Rollo  embraced  Christianity,  and  received 
the  baptismal  name  of  Robert.  He  submitted  to  become  a  vas- 
sal of  the  crown  of  France,  under  the  title  of  Duke  of  Norman- 
dy ;  and  obtained  in  marriage  the  princess  Gisele,  daughter  of 
Charles  the  Simple.  In  the  following  century,  we  shall  meet 
with  these  Normans  of  France  as  the  conquerors  of  England, 
and  the  founders  of  the  kingdom  of  the  two  Sicilies. 

The  Hungarians,  a  people  of  Turkish  or  Finnish  origin, 
emigrated,  as  is  generally  supposed,  from  Baschiria,  a  country 
lying  to  the  north  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  between  the  Wolga,  the 
Kama,  and  Mount  Ural,  near  the  source  of  the  Tobol  and  the 
Jaik,  or  modem  Ural.  The  Orientals  designate  them  by  the 
generic  name  of  Turks,  while  they  denominate  themselves 
Magiars,  from  the  name  of  one  of  Uieir  tribes.  After  having 
been  long  dependent  on  the  Chazars,'*  a  Turkish  tribe  to  the 
north  of  the  Palus  Maotis,  they  retired  towards  the  Danube,  to 
avoid  the  oppressions  of  the  Patzinacites ;"  and  established 
themselves  (887)  in  ancient  Dacia,  under  the  auspices  of  a  chief 
named  Arpad,  from  whom  the  ancient  sovereigns  of  Hungary 
derive  their  origin.  Amulph,  King  of  Germany,  employed 
these  Hungarians  (892)  against  the  Slavo-Moravians,  who  pos- 
sessed a  flourishing  state  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  the 
Morau,  and  the  Elbe."  While  engaged  in  this  expedition,  they 
were  attacked  again  in  their  Dacian  possessions  by  the  Patzina- 

7* 


eilM,  who  laeeecdad  at  length  in  expelling  them  from  ihoM 
tenitoriee.**  Taking  advantage  afterwards  of  the  death  of 
Swiatopolk,  king  of  the  Moravians,  and  the  troubles  conse- 
quent on  that  event,  they  dissevered  from  Moravia  all  the  coun- 
try  which  extends  from  the  frontiers  of  Moldavia,  Wallachia 
and  Transylvania,  to  the  Danube  and  the  Morau.  They  con> 
quered,  about  the  same  time,  Pannonia,  with  a  part  of  Noricum, 
which  they  had  wrested  from  the  Germans ;  and  thus  laid  the 
foundation  of  a  new  state,  known  since  by  the  name  of  Hungary. 
No  sooner  had  the  Hungarians  established  themselves  m 
Pannonia,  than  they  commenced  their  incursions  into  the  prin* 
cipal  states  of  Europe.  Germany,  Italy,  and  Gaul,  agitated  by 
faction  and  anarchy,  and  even  the  Grecian  empire  in  the  East, 
became,  all  in  their  turn,  the  bloody  scene  of  tneir  ravages  and 
devastations.  Germany,  in  particular,  for  a  long  time  felt  the 
eflfecU  of  their  fury.  AH  its  provinces  in  succession  were  laid 
waste  by  Uiese  batDarians,  and  compelled  to  pay  them  tribute. 
Henry  I.,  King  of  Germany,  and  his  son  Otho  the  Great,  at 
length  succeeded  in  arresting  their  destructive  career,  and  de- 
livetvd  Europe  from  this  new  yoke  which  threatened  its  in- 
dependence. ,  ,     u 

It  was  in  consequence  of  these  incursions  of  the  Hunsarians 
and  Normans,  to  which  may  be  added  those  of  the  Arabs  and 
Slavonians,  that  the  kingdoms  which  sprang  from  the  empire  of 
the  Franks  lost  once  more  the  advantages  which  the  political 
institutions  of  Charlemagne  had  procured  them.     Learning, 
which  that  prince  had  encouraged,  fell  into  a  state  of  absolute 
languor ;  an  end  was  put  both  to  civil  and  literary  improvement, 
by  the  dzstruction  of  convents,  schools,  and  libraries ;  the  po- 
lity and  internal  security  of  the   states  were  destroyed,  and 
commerce  reduced  to  nothing.     England  was  the  only  excep- 
tion, which  then  enjoyed  a  transient  glory  under  the  memora- 
ble reign  of  Alfred  the  Great.   That  prince,  grandson  of  Egbert, 
who  was  the  first  king  of  all  England,  succeeded  in  expellmg 
the  Normans  from  the  island  (887.)  and  restored  peace  and  tran- 
quillity to  his  kingdom.    After  the  example  of  Charlemagne, 
he  cultivated  and  protected  learning  and  the  arts,  by  restoring 
the  convents  and  schools  which  the  barbarians  had  destroyed; 
iMviting  philosophers  and  artists  to  his  court,  and  civilizing  hia 
aobjects  by  literary  institutions  and  wise  regulations."    It  u 
to  be  regretted,  that  a  reign  so  glorious  was  so  soon  followed 
by  new  misfortunes.     After  the  Normans,  the  Danes  reappeared 
in  England,  and  overspread  it  once  more  with  turbulence  and 

desolation.  .       .      ,      .  c  j 

During  these  unenlightened  and  calamitous  times,  we  nnd 


tiling  thatn  from  thut 
v«rds  of  the  death  of 
nd  the  troubles  conae- 
n  Moravi*  all  the  coun- 
f  Moldavia,  Wallachia 
he  Morau.  They  con- 
with  a  part  of  Noricum, 
lana ;  and  thus  laid  the 
y  the  name  of  Hungary, 
ablished  themselves  m 
ncursions  into  the  prin- 
f,  and  Qau  I,  agitated  by 
:ian  empire  in  the  East, 
ine  of  their  ravages  and 
for  a  long  time  felt  the 
in  succession  were  laid 
ed  to  pay  them  tribute, 
son  Otho  the  Great,  at 
tructive  career,  and  de- 
irhich  threatened  its  in- 

sions  of  the  Hunnrians 
those  of  the  Arabs  and 
irang  from  the  empire  of 
tges  which  the  political 
ured  them.  Learning, 
1  into  a  state  of  absolute 
nd  literary  improvement, 
s,  and  libraries ;  the  po- 
;es  were  destroyed,  and 
land  was  the  only  excep- 
ory  under  the  memora* 
ince,  grandson  of  Egbert, 
I,  succeeded  in  expelling 
1  restored  peace  and  tran- 
xample  of  Charlemagne, 
ind  the  arts,  by  restoring 
irbnrians  had  destroyed; 
I  court,  and  civilizing  his 
vise  regulations.'^  It  is 
IS  was  80  soon  followed 
ms,  the  Danes  reappeared 
lore  with  turbulence  and 

ilamitoas  times,  we  find 


FBBIOD  III.     A.  D.  960 — 1074. 


7f 


the  art  of  navigation  making  considerable  progress.  The  Nor> 
mans,  traversinj^  the  seas  perpetually  with  their  fleets,  learned 
to  construct  thoir  vessels  with  greater  perfection,  to  beeoma 
better  skilled  in  wind  and  weather,  and  to  use  their  oars  and 
sails  with  more  address.  It  was,  moreover,  in  consequence  of 
these  invasions,  that  more  correct  information  was  obtained  re- 

5arding  Scandinavia,  and  the  remote  regions  of  the  North, 
'wo  Normans,  Wolfstane  and  Other,  the  one  from  Jutland, 
and  the  other  from  Norway,  undertook  separate  voyaoes,  in 
course  of  the  ninth  century,  principally  with  the  view  of  mak* 
ing  maritime  discoveries.  Wolfstane  proceeded  to  visit  that 
part  of  Prussia,  or  the  Eithonia  of  the  ancients,  which  was  re* 
nowned  for  its  produce  of  yellow  amber.  Other  did  not  con* 
fine  his  adventures  to  the  roasts  of  the  Baltic ;  setting  out  from 
the  port  of  Heligoland,  his  native  country,  he  doubled  Cape 
North,  and  advanced  as  far  as  Biarmia,  at  tho  mouth  of  tne 
Dwina,  in  the  province  of  Archangel.  Both  he  and  Wolfstane 
communicated  the  details  of  their  voyages  to  Alfred  the  Great, 
who  made  use  of  them  in  his  Anglo-Saxon  translation  of  Oroeiaa. 
Besides  Iceland  and  the  Northern  Isles,  of  which  we  have 
alre&dy  spoken,  we  find,  in  the  tenth  century,  some  of  the  fuffi* 
tive  Normans  peopling  Greenland ;  and  otners  forming  settle- 
ments in  Finland,  which  some  suppose  to  be  the  island  of 
Newfoundland,  in  North  America.^ 


CHAPTER  IV. 


FBRIOD   UI. 

From  Otho  the  Great  to  Gregory  the  Great,    a.  d.  962—1074. 

While  most  of  the  states  that  sprang  from  the  dismembered 
empire  of  the  Franks,  continued  to  be  the  prey  of  disorder  and 
anarchy,  the  kingdom  of  Germany  assumed  a  new  form,  and 
for  several  ages  maintained  the  cnaracter  of  being  the  ruling 
power  in  Europe.     It  was  erected  into  a   monarchy  at  the 

eiace  of  Verdun  (843,)  and  had  fnr  its  first  king  Louis  the 
erman,  second  son  of  Louis  the  Gentle.  At  that  time  it 
comprised,  besides  the  three  cantons  of  Spire,  Worms,  and 
Mayence,  on  this  side  the  Khine,  all  the  countries  and  pro- 
vinces beyond  that  river,  which  had  belonged  to  the  empire  of 
the  Franks,  from  the  Eyder  and  the  Baltic,  to  the  Alps  and 
the  confines  of  Fannonia.  Several  of  the  Slavian  tribes,  also, 
were  its  tributaries. 
From  the  first  formation  of  this  kingdom,  the  royal  authority 


-vmmh 


eiumt  If. 


T 


WM  limited ;  and  Loud  UieO«nn»ii,  in  m  uMmbly  held  tt 
Menme  (8fil,)h»d  formally  ennged  to  mainttin  thtu^m  in  thnr 
rightt  and  prMUgu ;  tofMa  thrir  ermiml  mnd  tdviu  ;  M 
femtider  them  o$  ki$  tnu  eoOngtut  and  eoadfutw  in  M  tht 
mffmn  of  government.  The  iUiet,  however,  eoon  found  metnt 
to  veet  in  thcmiel?ee  the  right  of  rhoosing  their  kings.  The 
Ant  Carloringian  monarcht  of  Germany  were  hereditary. 
Louie  the  Oerriian  even  divided  hi»  kingdom  among  hu  three 
sona,  VII.  Carloman,  Louie  the  Young,  and  Char  lee  the  Fat ; 
but  Chariee  having  been  depoeed  in  an  arnmbly  held  at  Frank- 
fort (887,)  the  itatee  of  Germany  elected  in  hie  place  Amalpli,a 
natural  eon  of  Carloman.  This  prince  added  to  his  crown  both 
Italy  and  the  Imperial  dignity.        .       . ,    -,  . 

The  custom  of  election  has  continued  in  Germany  down  to 
modern  times.  Louie  rEnfnnt,  or  the  Infant,  son  of  Amulph, 
succeeded  to  the  throne  by  election ;  and  that  prince  havinof  died 
very  young  (911,)  the  slates  bestowed  the  crown  on  a  French 
noUeman,  named  Conrad,  who  was  duke  or  governor  of  France 
on  the  Rhine,  and  related  by  the  female  side  to  the  Carlovin- 
gian  line.  Conrad  mounted  the  throne,  to  the  exclusion  o. 
Charles  the  Simple,  King  of  France,  the  only  male  and  legiti- 
roato  heir  of  the  Carlovingian  line.  This  latter  pnnce,  how- 
ever, found  means  to  seiie  the  kingdom  of  Lorrain,  which 
Louis  the  Young  had  annexed  to  the  crown  of  Germany.  On 
the  death  of  Conrad  I.  J919,)  the  choice  of  the  states  fell  on 
Henry  I.,  surnamed  the  Fowl«r,  a  scion  of  the  Saxon  dynasty 
of  the  kings  and  emperors  of  Germany. 

It  was  to  the  valour  and  the  wisdom  of  Henry  I.,  and  to  his 
institutions,  civil  and  military,  that  Germany  was  indebted  for 
its  renewed  grandeur.  That  monarch,  taking  advantage  of  the 
intestine  troubles  which  had  arisen  in  France  under  Charles  the 
Simple,  recovered  possession  of  the  kingdom  of  Lorrain,  the 
nobility  of  which  made  their  submission  to  him  in  the  years 
933  and  925.  By  this  union  he  extended  the  limits  of  Germa- 
ny towards  the  west,  as  far  as  the  Meuse  and  the  Scheld.  The 
kings  of  Germany  afterwards  divided  the  territory  of  Lorrain 
into  two  governments  or  dutchies,  called  Upper  and  Lower  Lor- 
rain. The  former,  situated  on  the  Moselle,  was  called  the 
dutchy  of  the  Moselle  ;  the  other,  bounded  by  the  Rhine,  the 
Meuse,  and  the  Scheld,  was  known  by  the  name  of  Lothiers  or 
Brabant.  These  two  dutchiee  comprised  all  the  provinces  of 
the  kingdom  of  Lorrain,  except  those  which  the  emperors 
judged  proper  to  exempt  from  the  authority  and  jurisdiction  of 
the  dukes.  The  dutchy  of  the  Moselle,  alone,  finally  retained 
the  name  of  Lomin;  and  passed  (1048)  to  Gerard  of  Alsace, 


in  an  MMmbly  held  tt 
lutintuin  th»  tftm  in  their 
ermniel  mnd  mdmet;  ..nd 
and  eomdfutari  in  all  the 
Dwever,  toon  found  meani 
XMing  their  kings.  The 
rmany  were  hereditary. 

ngdom  among  hit  three 
ng,  and  Charlee  the  Fat ; 

aasemUy  held  at  Frank- 
ed in  hi*  place  Amalph,  a 
:e  added  to  hie  crown  holh 

ued  in  Qermany  down  to 
le  Infant,  son  of  Amnlph, 
nd  that  prince  havinff  died 
Ithe  crown  on  a  French 
uke  or  governor  of  France 
nale  side  to  the  Carlovin- 

rone,  to  the  exclusion  o. 

the  only  male  and  legiti* 
This  fatter  prince,  how- 
ngdom  of  Lorrain,  which 
I  crown  of  Germany.  On 
hoico  of  the  slates  fell  on 
[ion  of  the  Saxon  dynasty 
my. 

im  of  Henry  I.,  and  to  his 
Qermany  was  indebted  foi 
ch,  taking  advantage  of  the 
[)  France  under  Charles  the 
!  kingdom  of  Lorrain,  the 
ssion  to  him  in  the  years 
ended  the  limits  of  Qerma* 
[euse  and  the  Scheld.  The 
ed  the  terrilorv  of  Lorrain 
lied  Upper  and  Lower  Lor- 
!  Moselle,  was  called  the 
Munded  by  the  Rhine,  the 
by  the  name  of  Lothiers  or 
prised  all  the  provinces  of 
nose  which  the  emperors 
itbority  and  jurisdiction  of 
lelle,  alone,  nnally  retained 
048)  to  Gerard  of  Alsace, 


ntioD  lit.    A.  o.  968—1074. 


M 


descended  firom  the  dukes  of  that  name,  who,  in  the  eujhteenth 
century,  succeeded  to  the  Imperial  throne.  As  to  the  outehv  of 
Lower  Lorrain,  the  Emperor  Henry  V.  conferred  it  on  Ood> 
frey.  Count  of  Louvain  (1106,)  who«e  male  descendants  kept 
possession  of  it,  under  the  title  of  Dukns  of  Brabant,  till  19M, 
when  it  passed  by  female  succession  to  the  Dukes  of  Burgun- 
dy, who  found  means  also  to  acquire,  by  deffrees,  the  greater 
part  of  Lower  Lorrain,  commonly  calleu  the  Low  Countries. 

Henry  I.,  a  prince  of  extraordinary  genius,  proved  himself 
the  true  restorer  of  the  German  kingdom.  The  SlavonitAi 
tribes  who  inhabited  the  banks  of  the  Saal,  and  the  country  be- 
tween the  Elbe  and  the  Baltic,  committed  incessant  ravages  on 
the  frontier  provinces  of  the  kingdom.  With  these  he  waged 
a  successful  war,  and  reduced  them  once  more  to  the  condition 
of  tributaries.  But  his  policy  was  turned  chiefly  against  the 
Hungarians,  who,  since  the  reign  of  Louis  11.,  had  repeatedly 
renewed  their  incursions,  and  threatened  to  subject  all  Qerma- 
ny to  their  yoke.  Desirous  to  repress  eflectualfy  that  ferocious 
nation,  he  took  the  opportunity  of  a  ninu  years  truce,  which  he 
had  obtained  with  liicm,  to  construct  new  towns,  and  fortify 
places  of  strength.  Ho  instructed  his  troops  in  a  new  kind 
of  tactics,  accustomed  them  to  military  evolutions,  and  above 
all,  he  formed  and  equipped  a  cavalry  sufficient  to  cope  with 
those  of  the  Hungarians,  who  particularly  excelled  in  the  art 
of  managing  horses.  These  depredators  having  returned  with 
fresh  forces  at  the  expiry  of  the  truce,  he  completely  defeated 
them  in  two  bloody  battle5i,  which  he  fought  with  them  (933) 
near  Sondershausen  and  Merseburg ;  and  thus  exonerated  Ger- 
many from  the  tribute  which  it  had  formerly  paid  them.' 

This  victorious  prince  extended  his  conquests  beyond  the 
Eyder,  the  ancient  frontier,  of  Denmark.  After  a  prosperoua 
war  with  the  Danes  (931,)  He  founded  the  margravate  of  Sles- 
wick,  which  the  Emperor  Conrad  II.  afterwards  ceded  beck 
(1033)  to  Canute  the  Great,  King  of  Denmark. 

Otho  the  Great,  so:*  and  successor  of  Henry  I.,  added  the 
kingdom  of  Italy  to  the  conquests  of  his  father,  and  procured 
also  the  Imperial  dignity  for  himself,  and  his  successors  in  Ger- 
many. Italy  had  become  a  distinct  kingdom  since  the  revolu- 
tion, which  happened  (888)  at  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Charlea 
the  Fat.  Ten  princes  in  succession  occupied  the  throne  during 
the  space  of  se venty-three  years.  Several  of  these  princes,  sucn 
as  Guy,  Lambert,  Arnulf,  Louis  of  Burgundy,  and  Berenger  I., 
were  invested,  at  the  same  time,  with  the  Imperial  dignity,  Be- 
ranger  I.  having  been  assassinated  (924,)  this  latter  dignity 
ceased  entirely,  and  the  city  of  Rome  was  even  dismemMred 
from  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 


■I  oiAnsK  IV. 

^  The  soTereigQty  of  that  city  was  seiied  by  the  famouc  Maro- 
aia,  widow  of  a  oobleman  named  Alberic.  She  raiwd  her  son 
to  the'pontificate  by  the  title  of  John  XL ;  and  the  better  to  es. 
tablish  her  dominion,  she  espoused  Hugo  King  of  Italy  (982,) 
who  became,  in  consequence  of  this  marriage,  master  of  Rome. 
Bui  Alberic,  another  son  of  Murozia,  soon  stirred  up  the  people 
against  this  aspiring  princess  and  her  husband  Hugo.  Having 
driven  Hugo  from  the  throne,  and  shut  up  his  mother  in  prison, 
he  assumed  to  himself  the  sovereign  nuthbrily,  under  the  title 
of  Patrician  of  the  Romans.  At  his  death  (954,)  he  transmit- 
ted the  sovereignty  to  his  son  Octavian,  who,  though  only  nine- 
teen years  of  age,  caused  himself  to  be  elected  pope,  by  the  title 
of  John  XII. 

This  epoch  was  one  most  disastrous  for  Italy.  The  weak- 
ness of  the  government  excited  factions  among  the  nobility, 
gave  birth  to  anarchy,  and  fresh  opportunity  for  the  depredations 
of  the  Hungarians  and  Arabs,  who,  at  this  period,  were  the 
scourge  of  Italy,  which  they  ravaged  with  impunity.  Pavia, 
the  capital  of  the  kingdom,  was  taken  and  burnt  by  the  Hunga- 
rians. These  troubles  increased  on  the  accession  of  Berenger 
II.  (950,)  grandson  of  Berenger  I.  That  prince  associated  his 
son  Adelbert  with  him  in  the  royai  dignity;  and  the  public 
voice  accused  them  of  having  caused  the  death  of  King  Lothaire, 
son  and  successor  of  Hugo. 

Lothaire  left  a  young  widow,  named  Adelaide,  daughter  of 
Rodolph  II.,  King  of  Burgundy  and  Italy.  To  avoid  the  impor- 
tunities of  Berenger  II.,  who  wished  to  compel  her  to  marry  his 
son  Adelbert,  this  princess  called  in  the  King  of  Germany  to 
her  aid.     Otho  complied  with  the  solicitations  of  the  distressed 

?[ueen ;  and,  on  this  occasion,  undertook  his  first  expedition  into 
taly  (941.)  The  city  of  Pavia,  and  several  other  places,  having 
fallen  into  his  hands,  he  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  King 
of  Italy,  and  married  the  young  queen,  his  protegee.  Berenger 
and  his  son,  being  driven  for  shelter  to  their  strongholds,  had 
recourse  to  negotiation.  They  succeeded  in  obtaining  for  them- 
selves a  confirmation  of  the  royal  title  of  Italy,  on  condition  of 
doing  homage  for  it*to  the  King  of  Germany  ;  and  for  this  pur- 
pose, they  repaired  in  person  to  the  diet  assembled  at  Augsburg 
(953^)  where  they  took  the  oath  of  vassalage  under  the  hands 
of  Otho,  who  solemnly  invested  them  with  the  royalty  of  Italy ; 
reserving  to  himself  the  towns  and  marches  of  Aquileia  and 
Verona,  the  command  of  which  he  bestowed  on  his  brother  the 
Duke  of  Bavaria. 

In  examining  more  nearly  all  that  passed  in  this  a/f^ir,  it  ap- 
pears that  it  was  not  without  the  regret,  and  entn  contrary  to 


J 


led  by  the  ftmoat  llwo- 
trie.  She  raised  her  soa 
[I. ;  and  the  better  to  es. 
ugo  King  of  Italy  (932,) 
arriage,  master  of  Rome, 
ocn  stirred  up  the  people 
husband  Hugo.  HaTing 
it  up  his  mother  in  prison, 
nuthority,  under  the  title 
death  (964,)  he  transmit- 
1,  who,  though  only  nine- 
s  elected  pope,  by  the  title 

lis  for  Italy.  The  weak- 
tions  among  the  nobility, 
tunity  for  the  depredations 

at  this  period,  were  the 
d  with  impunity.     Pavia, 

and  burnt  by  the  Hunga- 
the  accession  of  Berenger 
'hat  prince  associated  his 

dignity;  and  the  public 
le  death  of  King  Lothaire, 

led  Adelaide,  daughter  of 
taly.  To  avoid  the  impor- 
to  compel  her  to  marry  his 
I  the  King  of  Germany  to 
[icitations  of  the  distressed 
lok  his  first  expedition  into 
leveral  other  places,  having 
lelf  to  be  proclaimed  King 
n,  his  protegee.  Berenger 
r  to  their  strongholds,  had 
teded  in  obtaining  for  them- 
ie  of  Italy,  on  condition  of 
lermany ;  and  for  this  pur- 
iiet  assembled  at  Augsburg 
vassalage  under  the  hands 
1  with  the  royalty  of  Italy ; 
:  marches  of  •Aquileia  and 
estowed  on  his  brother  the 

passed  in  this  affair,  it  &p- 
egret,  and  er.m  contrary  to 


-rsRioD  m.    A.  D.  M8— 1094.  flB 

the  wish  of  Adelaide,  that  Otho  agreed  to  enter  into  terms  of 
accommodation  with  Berenger,  and  to  ratify  the  compact  which 
Conrad,  Duke  of  Lorrain,  and  son-in-law  of  the  Emperor,  had 
mode  with  that  prince.  Afterwards,  however,  he  lent  a  favour* 
able  ear  to  the  complaints  which  Pope  John  XII.,  and  some 
Italian  noblemen  had  addressed  to  mm  against  Berenger  and 
his  son ;  and  took  occasion,  on  their  account,  to  conduct  a  new 
army  into  Italy  (961.)  Berenger,  too  feeble  to  oppose  him,  re- 
tired a  second  time  within  his  fortifications.  Olho  marched 
from  Pavia  to  Milan,  and  there  caused  himself  to  be  crowned 
King  of  Italy  ;  from  thence  he  passed  to  Some,  about  the  com- 
mencement of  the  following  year.  Pope  John  XII.,  who  had 
himself  invited  him,  and  again  implored  his  protection  against 
Berenger,  gave  him,  at  first,  a  very  brilliant  reception ;  and  re- 
vived the  Imperial  dignity  in  his  favour,  which  had  been  dor- 
mant for  thirty-eight  years. 

It  was  on  the  2(1  of  February  962,  that  the  Pope  consecrated 
and  crowned  him  Emperor ;  but  he  had  soon  cause  to  repent  of 
this  proceeding.  Otho,  immediately  after  his  coronation  at 
Rome,  undertook  the  siege  of  St.  Leon,  a  fortress  in  Umbria, 
where  Berenger  and  his  Queen  had  taken  refuge.  While  en- 
gaged in  the  siege,  he  received  frequent  intimations  from  Rome 
of  the  misconduct  and  immoralities  of  the  Pope.  The  remon- 
strances which  he  thought  it  his  duty  to  make  on  this  subject, 
oiiended  the  young  Pontiff,  who  resolved,  in  consequence,  to 
break  off  union  with  the  Emperor.  Hurried  on  by  the  impe- 
tuosity of  his  character,  he  entered  into  a  negotiation  with  Adel- 
bert;  and  even  persuaded  him  to  come  to  Rome,  in  order  to 
concert  with  him  measures  of  defence.  On  the  first  news  of 
this  event,  Otho  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  large  detachment, 
with  vfhich  he  marched  directly  to  Rome.  The  Pope,  however, 
did  not  think  it  advisable  to  wait  his  approach,  but  fled  with  the 
King,  his  new  ally.  Otho,  on  arriving  at  the  capital,  exacted  a 
solemn  oath  from  the  clergy  and  the  people,  that  henceforth 
they  would  elect  no  pope  without  his  counsel,  and  that  of  the 
Eniperor  and  his  successors.'  Having  then  assembled  a  coun- 
cil, ne  caused  Pope  John  XII.  to  be  deposed ;  and  Leo  VIII. 
was  elected  in  his  place.  This  latter  Pontiff  was  maintained 
in  the  papacy,  in  spite  of  all  the  efforts  which  his  adversary 
made  to  regain  it.  Berenger  II.,  after  having  sustained  a  hmg 
siege  at  St.  Leon,  fell  at  length  (964)  into  the  hands  of  the  con- 
queror, who  sent  him  into  exile  at  Bamberg,  and  dompel|ed  his 
son,  Adelbert,  to  take  refuge  in  the  court  of  Constantinople. 

All  Italv,  to  the  extent  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  the  Lorn- 
buds,  fell  under  the  dominioa  of  the  Germans ;  only  a  fow 


:    i' 


It;. 


H  eiumft  IT. 

maritime  towns  in  Lower  Italy,  with  the  greater  toart  of  Apulia 
and  Calabria,  still  remained  tO'the  power  of  the  ureeks.  This 
kingdom,  together  with  the  Imperial  dignity,  Otho  transmitted 
to  his  successors  on  the  throne  of  Germany.  From  this  time 
the  Germans  held  it  to  be  an  inviolable  principle,  that  as  the  im> 
perial  dignity  was  strictly  united  with  the  royalty  of  Italy,  kings 
elected  by  the  German  nation  should,  at  the  same  time,  in  virtue 
of  that  election,  become  kings  of  Italy  and  Emperors.    The 

Sractice  of  this  triple  coronation,  viz.  of  Germanv,  Italy,  and 
tome,  continued  for  many  centuries ;  and  from  Otno  the  Great, 
till  Maximilian  I.  (1608,)  no  king  of  Germany  took  the  title  of 
Emperor,  until  aAer  he  had  been  formally  crowned  by  the  Pope. 
Tne  kings  and  emperors  of  the  house  of  Saxony,  did  not 
terminate  their  conquests  with  the  dominions  of  Lorrain  and 
Italy.  Towards  the  east  and  the  north,  they  extended  them  be- 
yond  the  Saal  and' the  Elbe.  All  the  Slavonian  tribes  between 
the  Havel  and  the  Oder;  the  Abotrites,  the  Rhedarians,  the 
Wiizians,  the  Slavonians  on  the  Havel,  the  Sorabians,  the  Dale- 
minicians,  the  Lusitzians,  the  Milzians,  and  various  others  ;  the 
dukes  also  of  Bohemia  and  Poland,  although  they  often  took  up 
arms  in  defence  of  their  liberty  and  independence,  were  all  re- 
duced to  subjection,  and  again  compelled  to  pay  tribute.  In  order 
to  secure  their  submission,  the  Saxon  kings  introduced  German 
colonies  into  the  conquered  countries ;  and  founded  there  several 
margravates,  such  as  that  of  the  North,  on  this  side  of  the  Elbe, 
afterwaalBi  called  Brandenburg ;  and  in  the  East,  those  of  Misnia 
and  Lusa'ia.  Otho  the  Great  adopted  measures  for  promulga- 
ting Christianity  among  them.  The  bishopric  of  Oldenburg 
in  Wagria,  of  Havelberg,  Brandenburg,  Meissen,  Merseburg, 
Zeitz;  those  of  Posnania  or  Posen,  in  Poland,  of  Prague  in  Bo- 
hemia ;  and  lastly,  the  metropolis  of  Magdeburg,  all  owe  their 
origin  to  this  monarch.  His  grandson,  the  Emperor  Otho  III., 
founded  (in  1000)  the  Archbishopric  of  Gnesna,  in  Poland,  to 
which  he  subjected  the  bishoprics  of  Colberg,  Cracow,  and 
Breslau,  reserving  Posen  to  the  metropolitan  See  of  Magdeburg. 
The  Saxon  dynasty  became  extinct  (1024)  with  the  Emperor 
Henry  II.  It  was  succeeded  by  that  of  Franconia,  commonly 
called  the  Stdic.  Conrad  II.,  the  first  emperor  of  this  bouse, 
united  to  the  German  crown,  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy;  or,  as 
it  is  sometimes  called,  .the  kingdom  of  Aries.  This  monarchy, 
•itoate  between  the  Rivne,  the  Reuss,  Mount  Jura,  the  Soane, 
the  Rhone,  and  the  A^,  had  been  divided  among  a  certain 
nhmbeir  of  counts,  or  governors  of  provinces,  who,  in  conse- 

ioence  of  tho  weakness  of  their  last  lungs,  Conrad  and  Rodolph 
[I.,  had  converted  their  temftivy  jurisdictioM  irU)  hereditsury 


he  gmiter  jMrt  of  Apulia 
rer  of  the  Greeks.  This 
iignity,  Otho  transmitted 
rmany.  From  this  time 
e  principlei  that  as  the  im- 
the  royalty  of  Italy,  kings 
at  the  same  time,  in  virtue 
kly  and  Emperors.    The 

of  Germany,  Italy,  and 
and  from  Otho  the  Great, 
Germany  took  the  title  of 
ally  crowned  by  the  Pope, 
douse  of  Saxony,  did  not 
ominions  of  Lorrain  and 
h,  they  extended  thembe- 

Slavonian  Uibes  between 
ites,  the  Rhedarians,  the 
a,  the  Sorabians,  the  Dale* 
8,  and  various  others  ;  the 
(though  they  often  took  up 
independence,  were  all  re- 
led  to  pay  tribute.  In  order 

kings  introduced  German 

and  founded  there  several 
1,  on  this  side  of  the  Elbe, 
in  the  East,  those  of  Misnia 
id  measures  for  promulga- 
te bishopric  of  Oldenburg 
lurg,  Meissen,  Merseburg, 
n  Poland,  of  Prague  in  Bo- 
Magdeburg,  all  owe  their 
on,  the  Emperor  Otho  III., 
;  of  Gnesna,  in  Poland,  to 
of  Colberg,  Cracow,  and 
tpolitan  See  of  Magdeburg. 
It  (1024)  with  tho  Emperor 
It  of  Franconia,  commonly 
rst  emperor  of  this  house, 
igdom  of  Burgundy ;  or,  as 
of  Aries.    This  monarchy, 
s8.  Mount  Jura,  the  Soane, 
1  divided  among  a  certain 
'  provinces,  who,  in  conse- 
kings,  Goovad  and  Rodolph 
{urisdicUoiia  irU>  hereditary 


Henry  IV.,  Eimptrw  of  Oentmmi,  aubmitting  to  Pom 
Gregory  VU.    FoL  I— p.  106. 


Peter  the  HermnUnreaekmg  to  the  Cnum 
den.    FoL  I— p.  118. 


PERIOD  m.     A.  D.  WSt — 1074. 


and  patrimonial  offices,  after  the  example  of  the  French  nobUjtjTi 
who  had  already  usurped  the  same  power.  The  principal  and 
most  puissant  of  these  Burgundian  nobles,  were  the  Counts  i)t 
Provence,  Vienne,  (afterwards  called  Dauphins  of  Vienne,)  Sa- 
voy, Burgundy,  and  Montbelliard ;  the  Archbishop  of  LyetM, 
Besancon,  and  Aries,  and  the  Bishop  of  Basle,  ice.  The  ooii' 
tempt  in  which  these  powerful  vassals  held  the  royal  authority, 
induced  fiodolph  to  apply  for  protection  to  his  Kinsmen  the 
Emperors  Henry  II.  and  Conrad  II.,  and  to  acknowledge  them, 
by  several  treaties,  his  heirs  and  successors  to  the  crown.  It 
was  in  vjrtue  of  these  treaties,  that  Conrad  II.  took  possession 
of  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy  (1032)  on  the  death  of  Rodolph  DL 
He  maintained  his  rights  by  force  of  arms  against  Kudfls, 
Count  of  Champagne,  who  claimed  to  be  the  legitimate  aoo- 
cessor,  as  being  nephew  to  the  last  king. 

This  reunion  was  but  a  feeble  addition  to  tho  power  of  tiK 
German  emperors.  The  bishops,  counts,  and  great  vassala  of 
the  kingdom  they  had  newly  acquired,  still  retained  the  an* 
thority  which  they  had  usurped  in  their  several  departments; 
and  nothing  was  left  to  the  emperors,  but  the  exercise  of  their 
feudal  and  proprietory  rights,  together  with  the  slender  remains 
of  the  demesne  lands  belonging  to  the  last  kines.  It  is  even 
probable,  that  the  high  rank  which  the  Burgundian  nobles  en- 
joyed, excited  the  ambition  of  those  in  Germany,  and  emboldened 
them  to  usurp  the  same  prerogatives. 

The  emperors  Conrad  II.  (1033)  and  Henry  III.  (1038,)  were 
both  crowned  Kings  of  Burgundy.  The  Emperor  Lothaiie 
conferred  the  viceroyalty  or  regency  on  Conrad  Duke  of  Zak> 
ringen,  who  then  took  the  title  of  uovemor  or  Regent  of  Bur- 
gundy. Berthold  IV.,  son  of  Conrad,  resigned  (llfiS,)  in  favonr 
of  the  Emperor  Frederic  I.,  his  rights  of  viceroyalty  over  that  part 
of  the  kingdom  situate  beyond  Mount  Jurau  Switzerland,  at 
that  time,  was  subject  to  the  Dukes  of  Zahringen,  who,  in  order 
to  retain  it  in  vassalage  to  their  government,  fortified  Morves, 
Mouden,  Yverdun,  and  Berthoud ;  and  built  the  cities  of  Fti> 
bourg  and  Berne.  On  the  extinction  of  the  Zahringian  dukes, 
(1191,)  Switzerland  became  an  immediate  province  ofthe  empire. 
It  was  afterwards  (1218)  formed  into  a  repuhlic ;  and  the  other 
parts  of  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy  or  Aries  were  gradually 
united  to  France,  as  we  shall  see  in  course  of  our  narrative. 

The  Hungarians,  since  their  first  invasion  under  Louis  i'En> 
fiuit,  had  wrested  from  the  German  crown  all  its  possessions  in 
Pannonia,  with  a  part  of  ancient  Noricum ;  and  the  borndariea 
of  Germany  had  been  contracted  within  the  river  Ens  in  Baim* 
ria.    Their  growing  preponderance  afterwards  enabled  the  Gsf^ 

vok  L  8 


OHAPTBt  IV. 


..zftMa 


msM  to  recover  from  th«  Hungarians  a  part  of  *««  conquests. 
Th«y  aucceeded  in  expelling  them,  not  only  .from  Nor.c^m,  but 

ei^from  that  part  of  Upper  P»""°r. '"'"J^^Hp  "rtvI^Leita 
Mount  Cetius,  or  Kahlenberg  as  it  is  called,  and  the  "ver  Le  ta. 
Hpnru  III  secured  the  possession  of  these  territories  by  the 
S^"7o  peace  which  he^oncluded  (1043)  with  Samuel,  sur- 
Sd  aL.  King  of  Hungary.  This  part  of  Hungary  was 
annexed  to  the  eastern  Margravate.  or  Austria,  which  then  be- 
can  to  assume  nearly  its  present  form.  f,v.r«mnr. 

^  Such  then  was  the  progressive  aggrand.zement  of  the  Germar 
empire,  from  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  to  the  P^J^^J.     Under 
its  most  flourishing  stale,  that  is,  under  the  Emperor  Henry  111., 
irembraced  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  monarchy  of  Charlemagne. 
AH  Gennany  betweeiA  the  Rhine,  the  EyJer.  t^e  Oder,  the  Leita, 
and  the  Alpl;  all  Italy,  as  far  as  the  confines  of  the  Greeks  .n 
Apulia  and^Calabria;  ^Gaul.  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Scheldt    he 
ffeuse.  and  the  Rhone,  acknowledged  the  supremacy  of   he 
emperors      The  Dukes  of  Bohemia  and  Poland,  were  their  tri- 
butaries    a  dependence  which  continued  until  the  commotions 
whS  agitJted^Germany  put  an  end  to  it  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
GermaC,  at  this  period,  ranked  as  the  ruling  power  m  Europe 
and  this  pr;ponderSnce  was  not  owing  so  muck  to  he  extent  o 
Kr  possessions,  as  to  the-vigour  of  her  g°'«"'"«"\';I'l^,,'J'" 
maintained  a  kind  of  system  of  political  unity.     The  emperors 
may  £  regarded  as  true  monarchs,  dispensing,  at  their  pleasure. 
SrJignitS  civil  and  ecclesiastical -possessing  very  large  do- 
main? in  all  parts  of  the  empire-*nd  exercising,  mdivulually, 
TZusbninJhes  of  the  sovereign  poxver  ;-onIy.  in  aflairs  of 
SJS Tmportance.  asking  the  advice  or  consent  of  ^he  gramlees 
this  greatness  of  the  German  emperors  gave  rise  to  a  system 
of  ility  which  the  Popes  took  great  care  to  supper  with  aU 
SeKSit  and  authoritV-     According  to  this  system,  the  whole 

*  ChSendom  composUas  ^^  ^^  *  -'f  ^ 'l!!?J  „nd  t"he 
republic,  of  which  thTPope  was  the  spiritual  head,  and  the 
EmiKiror  the  secular.    The  duty  of  the  latter,  as  head  and  patron 

St^e  Church,  was  to*Jce  W^'*  f^'chrisSy  " twj's 
aone  contrary  to  the  general  welfare  of  Christianity.  It  was 
irp.^  to  Fotect  the^atholic  Church,  to  be  the  guardian  of  its 
n^atioS,  to  convocate  its  general  councils,  and  exercise  such 
?;^s  as  the  nature  of  his  office  and  the  interests  of  Christianity 

T:L  I  trJf  this  ideal  system  that  the  emperors  enjoyed  a 
JSncy  over  other  monarchs.  with  the  exclusive  right  of  elect- 
KZT  and  that  they  had  be.io«^d  on  them  the  title  of  mas- 
u£  ofSe  world,  and  sbveieign  of  sovereigns.     A  more  impor- 


rsRioD  ni.    A.  D.  903—1074. 


87 


part  of  their  conquests, 
only  .from  Noricum,  but 
ia  which  lies  between 
led,  and  the  river  Leita. 
hese  territories  by  the 
043)  with  Samuel,  sur- 
pnrt  of  Hungary  was 
Austria,  which  then  be- 


dizement  of  the  German 
he  year  1043.    Under 
jie  Emperor  Henry  III., 
narchy  of  Charlemagne, 
rder,  the  Oder,  the  Leita, 
jnfines  of  the  Greeks  in 
thine  to  the  Scheldt,  the 
1  the  supremacy  of  the 
J  Poland,  were  their  tri- 
;d  until  the  commotions 
in  the  thirteenth  century, 
ruling  power  in  Europe ; 
so  much  to  the  extent  of 
government,  which  still 
Ell  unity.     The  emperors 
lensing,  at  their  pleasure, 
)0S8essing  very  large  do- 
exercising,  individually, 
wcr ; — only,  in  affairs  of 
consent  of  the  grandees. 
)rs  gave  rise  to  a  system 
care  to  support  with  all 
to  this  system,  the  whole 
,  a  single  and  individual 
;  spiritual  head,  and  the 
I  latter,  as  head  and  patrcm 
e  that  nothing  should  be 
of  Christianity.    It  was 
1,  to  be  the  guardian  of  its 
ouncils,  and  e::ercise  such 
le  interests  of  Christianity 

tat  the  emperors  enjoyed  a 
the  exclusive  right  of  elect- 
1  on  them  the  title  of  mas- 
rereigns.     A  more  impor- 


tant prerogative  was  that  which  they  pqasessed  in  the  election  of 
the  Popes.    From  Otho  the  Great  to  Henry  IV.,  all  the  Roman 

Kintiflfs  were  chosen,  or  at  least  confirmed,  by  the  emperors, 
enry  III.  deposed  three  schismatical  popes  (1046,)  and  sub* 
stituted  in  their  place  a  German,  who  took  the  name  of  Clement 
II.  The  same  emperorafterwardsnominated  various  other  popes 
of  his  own  nation. 

However  vast  and  formidable  the  power  of  these  monarchs 
seemed  to  be,  it  was  nevertheless  far  from  being  a  solid  and 
durable  fabric  ;  and  it  was  easy  to  foresee  that,  in  a  short  time, 
it  would  crumble  and  disappear.  Various  causes  conspired  to 
accelerate  its  downfall ;  the  first  and  principal  of  which  necessa- 
rily sprang  from  the  constitution  of  the  empire,  which  was  faulty 
in  itself,  and  incompatible  with  any  scheme  of  aggrandizement 
or  conquest.  A  great  empire,  to  prolong  its  durability,  requires 
a  perfect  unity  of  power,  which  can  act  with  despatch,  and  com- 
municate with  facility  from  one  extremity  to  the  other ;  an 
armed  force  constantly  on  foot,  and  .capable  of  maintaining  the 
public  tranquillity;  frontiers  well  defended  against  hostile  inva- 
sion ;  and  revenues  proportioned  to  the  exigencies  of  the  state. 
All  these  clmracteristics  of  political  greatness  were  wanting  in 
the  Geman  empire. 

That  empire  was  elective;  the  states  co-operated  jointly  with 
the  emperors  in  the  exercise  of  die  legislative  power. "  There 
were  neither  permanent  armies,  nor  fortresses,  nor  taxation,  nor 
any  regular  system  of  finance.  The  government  was  without 
vigour,  incapable  of  protecting  or  punishing,  or  even  keeping 
in  subjection,  its  remote  provinces,  consisting  of  nations  who 
differed  in  language,  manners,  and  legislation.  One  insurrec- 
tion, though  quelled,  was  only  the  forerunner  of  others ;  and 
the  conquered  nations  shook  on  the  yoke  with  the  same  facility 
as  they  received  it.  The  perpetual  wars  of  the  emperors  in 
Italy,  from  the  first  conquest  of  that  country  by  Otho  the  Great, 
prove,  in  a  manner  most  evident,  tba  strange  imbecility  of  ihe 
government.  At  every  change  of  reign,  and  every  little  revo- 
lution  which  happened  in  Germany,  the  Italians  rose  in  arms, 
and  put  the  emperors  again  to  the  necessity  of  reconquering 
that  kingdom  ;  which  undoubtedly  it  was  their  interest  to  have 
abandoned  entirely,  rather  than  to  lavish  for  so  many  centuries 
their  treasures  and  the  blood  of  their  people  to  no  purpose.  The 
climate  of  Italy  was  also  disastrous  to  the  Imperial  armies; 
and  many  successions  of  noble  German  families  found  there  a 
foreign  grave. 

An  inevitable  consequence  of  this  vitiated  constitution,  was 
the  decline  of  the  royal  authority,  and  the  gradual  inciease  of 


m 


the  power  of  the  noWlity.  It  is  importmt,  however,  to  remark, 
that  in  Gennany  the  progress  of  the  feudal  system  had  been 
much  less  rapidfthan  in  France.  The  dukes,  counts,  and  roar- 
naTes,  that  w,  the  jfovernors  of  promces,  and  wardens  of  the 
SLhes,  continued  for  long  to  be  regarded  merely  as  imperial 
officers,  without  any  pretensions  to  consider  their  governments 
Mhereditary,  or  exercise  the  rights  of  sovereignty.  Even  fiefs 
nmained  for  many  ages  in  their  primitive  state,  without  being 
perpetuated  in  the  families  of  those  to  whom  they  had  been 

°"i' wta1[  STani^,*  however,  took  place  towards  the  end  of  the 
eleventh  century.     The  dukes  and  counts,  become  formidable 
by  the  extent  of  their  power  and  their  vast  possessions,  by  de- 
0^8,  constituted  themselves  hereditary  officers ;  and  not  content 
Imth  the  appropriation  of  their  dutchies  and  counties,  they  took 
advantage  of  the  weakness  of  the  emperors,  and  their  quarrels 
with  the  popes,  to  extort  from  them  new  privileges,  or  usurp  the 
merogatives  of  royalty,  formerly  reserved  for  the  emperor. 
Sone:     The  aristocracy,  or  landed  propnelors,  followed  the 
•xample  of  the  dukes  and  counts,  and  after  the  eleventh  century, 
they  all  began  to  play  the  part  of  sovereigns,  sty  ing  them- 
selves,  in  their  public  acts,  By  the  Grace  of  God.     At  length  hefs 
oocame  also  hereditary.     Conrad  11.  was  the  first  emperor  thut 
permitted  the  transmission  of  fiefs  to  sons  and  grandsons;  the 
succession  of  collateral  branches  was  subsequently  introduced. 
The  system  of  hereditary  feudalism  became  thus  firmly  esla- 
Wished  in  Germany,  and  by  a  natural  consequence,  it  brought 
on  the  destruction  of  the  imperial  authority,  and  the  ruin  oi 

Not2iB«i  however,  was  more  injurious  to  this  authority  than 
the  extravagant  power  of  the  clergy,  whom  the  emperors  of  the 
Swion  line  had  loaded  with  honours  and  benefactions,  either 
from  a  xeal  for  religion,  or  with  the  intention  of  using  them  ns 
•  eounierpoise  to  the  ambition  of  the  dukes  and  secular  iiobility. 
It  was  chiefly  to  Otho  the  Great  that  the  bishops  of  Germany 
were  indebted  for  their  temporal  power.  That  prince  bestowed 
on  them  large  grants  of  land  from  the  imperial  domains ;  he 
oave  them  towns,  counties,  and  entire  dukedoms,  with  the  pre- 
roiratives  of  royalty,  such  as  justiciary  powers,  the  right  of  coin- 
W  money,  of  levying  tolls  and  other  pubhc  revenues,  &c. 
These  riAts  and  privileges  he  granted  them  under  the  feudal 
Uw,  and  on  condition  of  rendering  him  military  »"y>t«de. 
Nevertheless,  as  the  disposal  of  ecclesiastical  dignities  belonged 
then  to  the  crown,  and  fiefs  had  not,  in  general,  become  heredi- 
taiy,  the  Emperor  atill  ratained  pouession  of  those  which  h» 


nt,  however,  to  remark, 
eudal  syBtem  had  been 
lakes,  counts,  and  roar- 
ces,  and  wardens  of  the 
rded  merely  as  imperial 
sider  their  governments 
overeignty.  Even  fiers 
ive  state,  without  being 
I  whom  they  had  been 

towards  the  end  of  the 
unts,  become  formidable 

vast  possessions,  by  de- 
r  officers ;  and  not  content 
I  and  counties,  they  took 
erors,  and  their  quarrels 
V  privileges,  or  usurp  the 
erved  for  the  emperors 
>roprietors,  followed  the 
'ter  the  eleventh  century, 
jvereigns,  styling  them- 
s  of  God.  At  length  fiefs 
vas  the  first  emperor  thut 
ions  and  grandsons ;  the 
subsequently  introduced, 
became  thus  firmly  esta- 
1  consequence,  it  brought 
ithority,  and  the  ruin  of 

9US  to  this  authority  than 
irhom  the  emperors  of  the 
J  and  benefactions,  either 
itention  of  using  them  as 
ukes  and  secular  nobility. 
I  the  bishops  of  Germany 
r.  That  prince  bestowed 
he  imperial  domains;  he 

dukedoms,  with  the  pre- 
powers,  the  right  of  coin- 
ler  public  revenues.  Ice. 
led  them  under  the  feudal 

hinv  military  servitude, 
iastical  dignities  belonged 
m  general,  become  heredi- 
«8sion  of  tbos«  which  h» 


T^ 


ntioo  111.    A.  D.  969^1074.  li 

conferred  on  the  clergy ;  these  he  bestowed  on  whomsoerw  h« 
judged  proper ;  using  them,  however,  always  in  conformity  with 
his  own  views  and  interests. 

The  same  policy  that  induced  Otho  to  transfer  to  the  bishops 
a  large  portion  of  his  domains,  led  him  also  to  intrust  them  with 
the  government  of  cities.  At  that  time,  there  was  a  distinction 
of  towns  into  royal  and  prefeetorial.  The  latter  were  dependent 
on  the  dukes,  while  the  former,  subject  immediately  to  the  king, 
gave  rise  to  what  has  since  been  called  imperial  cttiet.  It  was 
m  these  royal  cities  that  the  German  kings  were  in  the  practice 
of  establisning  counts  and  burgomasters  or  magistrates,  to  ex* 
ercise  in  their  name  the  rights  of  justice,  civil  and  criminal,  the 
levying  of  money,  customs,  tee.  as  well  as  other  prerogatives 
usually  reserved  to  the  King.  Otho  conferred  the  counties,  or 
governorships  of  cities  where  a  bishop  resided,  on  the  bishops 
themselves,  who,  in  process  of  time,  made  use  of  this  new  power 
to  subject  these  cities  to  their  own  authority,  and  render  them 
mediate  and  episcopal,  instead  of  being  immediate  and  royal  as 
they  were  originally. 

The  successors  of  Otho,  as  impolitic  as  himself,  imitated  his 
example.  In  consequence  of  this,  the  possessions  of  the  crown 
were,  by  degrees,  reduced  to  nothing,  and  the  authority  of  the 
emperors  declined  with  the  diminution  of  their  wealth.  The 
bishops,  at  first  devoted  to  the-  emperors,  both  from  necessity 
and  gratitude,  no  sooner  perceived  their  own  strength,  than  they 
were  tempted  to  make  use  of  it,  and  to  join  the  secular  princes, 
in  order  to  sap  the  imperial  authority,  as  well  as  to  consolidate 
their  own  power.  To  these  several  causes  of  the  downfall  of 
the  empire  must  be  added  the  new  power  of  the  Roman  pontifls, 
the  origin  of  which  is  ascribed  to  Pope  Gregory  VII.  In  the 
following  Period,  this  matter  will  be  treated  more  in  detail ; 
meantime,  we  shall  proceed  to  give  a  succinct  view  of  the  other 
states  that  figured  during  this  epoch  on  the  theatre  of  Europe. 

The  dynasty  of  the  Ommiades  in  Spain,  founded  about  the 
middle  of  the  eighth  century,  was  overturned  in  the  eleventh. 
An  insurrection  having  happened  at  Cordova  against  the  Ca- 
liph Hescham,  that  prince  was  dethroned  (1030,)  and  the  caliph- 
ate ended  with  him.  The  governors  of  cities  and  provinces, 
and  the  principal  nobility  of  the  Arabs,  formed  themselves  into 
independent  sovereigns,  under  the  title  of  kings  ;  and  as  many 
petty  Mahometan  States  rose  in  Spain  as  there  had  been  prin- 
cipal cities.  The  most  considerable  of  these,  were  the  king- 
don.s  of  Cordova,  Seville,  Toledo,  Lisbon,  Saragossa,  Tortosa, 
Valencia,  Murcia,  &c.  This  partition  of  the  caliphate  of  Cor- 
dova, enabled  the  princes  of  Christendom  to  aggrandize  their 

8  * 


m 


10  OHAfTM  IV. 

Sower  at  the  expense  of  the  Mahometans.  Besides  the  king:' 
oms  of  Leon  ond  Navarre,  there  existed  in  Spain  nt  the  com- 
mencement of  the  eleventh  century,  the  county  of  Castillo,  which 
had  been  dismembered  from  the  kinedom  of  Leon,  and  the 
county  of  Barcelona,  which  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of 
the  lungs  of  France. 

Sancho  the  Greot,  King  of  Navarre,  had  the  fortune  to  unite 
in  his  own  family  all  these  different  sovereignties,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Barcelona  ;  and  as  this  occurred  nearly  at  the  same 
time  with  the  destruclion  of  the  caliphate  of  Cordova,  it  would 
have  been  easy  for  the  Christians  to  obtain  a  complete  ascen- 
dency over  the  Mahometans,  if  they  had  kept  their  forces  united. 
But  the  King  of  Navarre  lell  into  the  same  mistake  that  had 
been  so  fatal  to  the  Mahometans ;  he  divided  his  dominions 
among  his  sons  (1035.)  Don  Gnrcias,  the  eldest,  hod  Navarre, 
and  was  the  ancestor  of  a  long  line  of  Navarrese  kings  ;  ihe 
last  of  whom,  John  d'Albert  was  deposed  (1512)  by  Ferdinand 
the  Catholic.  From  Ferdinand,  the  younger  son.  King  of  Leon 
and  Cnstille,  were  descended  all  the  sovereigns  of  Custillc  and 
Leon  down  to  Queen  Isabella,  w'  o  irausl'erred  these  kingdoms 
(1474,)  by  marriage,  to  Ferdinand  the  Catholic.  Lastly,  Don 
Bamira,  natural  son  of  Sancho,  was  the  stem  from  whom  sprung 
all  the  kings  of  Arragon,  down  to  Ferdinand,  who  by  his  mar- 
riage with  Isabella,  happened  to  unite  all  the  different  Christian 
States  in  Spain ;  and  put  an  end  also  to  the  dominion  of  the 
Arabs  and  Moors  in  that  peninsula. 

In  France  the  royal  authority  declined  more  and  more,  from 
the  rapid  progress  which  the  feudal  system  made  in  that  king- 
dom, after  the  feeble  reign  of  Charles  the  Bald.  The  Dukes 
and  the  Counts,  usurping  the  rights  of  royalty,  made  war  on 
each  other,  and  raised  on  every  occasion  the  standard  of  revolt. 
The  kings,  in  order  to  gain  over  some,  and  maintain  others  in 
their  allegiance,  were  obliged  to  give  up  to  them  in  succession 
every  branch  of  the  royal  revenue ;  so  that  the  last  Carlovin- 
gian  princes  were  reduced  to  such  a  state  of  distress,  that,  far 
from  being  able  to  counterbalance  the  power  of  the  nobility,  they 
had  hardly  left  wherewithal  to  furnish  a  scanty  subsistence  for 
their  court.  A  change  of  dynasty  became  then  indispensable  ; 
and  the  throne,  it  was  evident,  must  fall  to  the  share  of  the  moat 

Cwerful  and  during  of  its  vassals.  This  event,  which  had  long 
en  foreseen,  happened  on  the  death  of  Louis  V.,  surnamedthe 
Slothful  (9S7,)  the  last  of  the  Carlovingiai  s,who  died  childless 
at  the  age  of  twenty. 

HuirU  Cupet,  great-grandson  of  Robert  the  Strong,  possessed 
atthartinie  the  central  parts  of  the  kingdom.     He  was  Count 


nsioD  III.    A.  D.  96S) — 1074. 


91 


IS.  Besides  the  king* 
d  in  Spain  at  the  com- 
Dunty  of  Castillo,  tvhich 
dom  of  Leon,  and  the 
ged  the  sovereignty  of 

ind  the  fortune  to  unite 
ereignties,  with  the  ex- 
red  nearly  at  the  same 
te  of  Cordova,  it  would 
itain  a  complete  ascen- 
kcpt  their  forces  united, 
same  mistake  that  had 
divided  his  dominions 
he  eldest,  hnd  Navarre, 
f  Niivurrese  kings  ;  ihe 
id  (1512)  by  Ferdinand 
nger  son.  King  of  Leon 
•ereigns  of  Custille  and 
sferred  these  kingdoms 
Catholic.  Lastly,  Don 
stem  from  whom  sprung 
inand,  who  by  his  mar- 
I  the  diflerent  Christian 
to  the  dominion  of  the 

id  more  and  more,  from 
Item  made  in  that  king- 

the  Bald.  The  Dukes 
if  royalty,  made  war  on 
n  the  standard  of  revolt. 

and  maintain  others  in 
ip  to  them  in  succession 

that  the  last  Carlovin- 
tate  of  distress,  that,  far 
>vver  of  the  nobility,  they 
a  scanty  subsistence  for 
!ime  then  indispensable  ; 

to  the  share  of  the  most 
is  event,  which  had  long 
^  Louis  v.,  surnamed  the 
pw  %f  who  died  childless 

rt  the  Strong,  possessed 
ngdom.     He  was  Count 


of  Paris,  Duke  of  France  and  Neustria ;  and  his  brother  Henry 
waa  master  of  the  dutchy  of  Burgundy.  It  waa  not  difficult  for 
Hugh  to  form  a  party ;  and  under  their  auspices  he  got  himself 
proclaimed  king  at  Noyon,  and  crowned  at  Rheims.  Charles 
Duke  of  Lorrain,  paternal  uncle  of  the  last  king,  and  sole  legiti- 
mate heir  to  the  Carlovingian  line,'  advanced  his  claims  to  the 
crown ;  he  seized,  by  force  of  arms,  on  Laon  and  Rheims  ;  but 
being  betrayed  by  the  Bishop  of  Laon,  and  delivered  up  to  his 
rival,  he  was  confined  in  a  prison  at  Orleans,  where  he  ended 
his  days  (991.) 

Hugh,  on  mounting  the  throne,  restored  to  the  possession  of 
the  crown,  the  lands  and  dominions  which  had  belonged  to  it 
between  the  Loire,  the  Seine,  and  the  Meuse.  His  power  gave 
a  new  lustre  to  the  royal  dignity,  which  he  found  means  to  ren- 
der hereditary  in  his  family ;  while  at  the  same  time  he  per- 
mitted the  grandees  to  transmit  to  their  descendants,  male  and 
female,  the  dutchies  and  counties  which  they  held  of  the  crown, 
reserving  to  it  merely  the  feudal  superiority.  Thus  the  feudal 
government  was  firmly  established  m  France,  by  the  hereditary 
tenure  of  the  great  fiefs  ;  and  that  kingdom  wus  in  consequence 
divided  among  a  certain  number  of  powerful  vuhsuIs,  who  ren- 
dered fealty  and  homage  to  their  kings,  and  marched  at  their 
command  on  military  expeditions  ;  but  who  nevertheless  were 
nearly  absolute  masters  in  their  own  dominions,  and  often  dic- 
tated the  law  to  the  sovereign  himself.  Hugh  was  the  progeni- 
tor of  the  Capetian  dynasty  of  French  kings,  so  called  from  his 
own  surname  of  Capet. 

England,  during  the  feeble  reigns  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  princes, 
successors  to  Alfred  the  Great,  had  sunk  under  the  dominion  of 
priests  and  monks.  The  consequence  was,  the  utter  ruin  of  its 
finances,  and  its  naval  and  military  power.  This  exposed  the 
kingdom  afresh  to  the  attacks  of  the  Danes  (991,)  who  imposed 
on  the  English  a  tribute  or  (ax,  known  by  the  name  ofDonegeit. 
Under  the  command  of  their  kings  Sueno  or  Sweyn  I.,  ond  Ca- 
nute the  Great,  thevnl  length  drove  the  Anglo-Saxon  kings  from 
their  thrones,  and,  made  themselves  masters  of  all  England 
(1017.)  But  the  dominion  of  the  Danes  was  only  of  short  con- 
tinuance. The  English  shook  ofTtheir  yoke,  and  conferred  their 
crown  on  Edward  the  Confessor  (1042)  a  prince  of  the  royal 
blood  of  their  ancient  kings.  On  the  death  of  Edward,  Harold, 
Earl  of  Kent,  was  acknowledged  King  of  England  (1066  ;)  but 
he  met  with  a  formidable  competitor  in  the  person  of  William 
Duke  of  Normandy. 

This  prince  had  no  other  right  to  the  crown,  than  that  founded 
on  a  verbal  promise  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  and  confirmed  by  an 


'1 


m  «»timi  IT. 

otih  which  Harol()  had  gi«en  him  while  Earl  of  K«nt.  William 
landod  in  England  (Oct oU'r  14th  1066,)  at  tho  head  of  aconiida* 
rablo  army,  nnd  having  oflTered  bottle  to  Harold,  nuar  Haaiingt  in 
Sussex,  ho  gainud  a  complete  victory.  Harold  was  killed  in 
the  action,  and  the  conquest  of  all  England  was  the  reward  of 
the  victor.  To  secure  himself  in  his  new  dominions,  Willism 
constiuctcJ  a  va.'*t  number  of  caailes  and  fortresses  throughout 
all  parts  of  the  kingdom,  which  he  took  care  to  fill  with  Nor* 
man  garrisons.  The  lands  and  places  of  trust  of  which  ho  had 
deprived  the  English,  were  distributed  among  the  Normans, and 
other  foreif;ners  «vho  were  attached  to  his  iortunes.  He  intro> 
duced  the  feudal  l.iv',and  rendered  fiefs  hereditary ;  he  ordered 
the  English  to  be  dibarir."!.  and  forbade  them  to  have  light  in 
their  houses  after  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening.  He  even  at< 
tempted  to  abolish  the  language  of  the  country,  by  esta>;lishing 
numerrjfi  schools  for  teaching  the  Norman-French;  by  pub- 
lishing ihe  laws,  and  ordering  the  pleadings  in  the  courts  of 
jusMce  to  be  made  in  that  language ;  hence  ii  happen<?d  that  the 
ancient  British,  combined  witli  the  Norman,  formed  a  new  sort 
of  language,  which  still  exists  in  the  modern  English.  Williom 
thus  became  the  common  ancestor  of  the  kings  of  England, 
whose  right  to  the  crown  is  derived  from  him,  and  founded  ot\ 
the  Conquest. 

About  the  tirr^p  'hat  William  conquered  England,  another  co- 
lony of  the  saiiif*  Normans  founded  the  kingdom  of  .he  two 
Sicilies.  The  several  provinces  of  which  this  kingdom  was 
composed,  were,  about  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  rentury, 
divided  among  the  Germans,  Greeks,  and  Arabians,*  who  were 
in<.'e8santly  waging  war  with  each  other.  A  band  of  nearly  a 
hundred  Normans,  equally  desirous  ot  war  and  glory,  landed  in 
that  country  (1016,)  and  tendered  their  services  to  the  Lombard 
princes,  vassals  of  the  Germen  empire.  The  bravery  which 
they  displayed  on  various  occasions,  made  these  princer  desirous 
of  retaining  them  in  their  pay,  to  serve  as  guardians  of  their 
frontiers  against  the  Greeks  and  Arabians.  The  Greek  princes 
very  soon  were  no  less  eager  to  goin  their  services ;  and  the 
Duite  of  Naples,  with  the  view  of  attaching  them  to  his  interest, 
ceded  to  them  a  large  territory,  where  they  built  the  city  of 
Aversa,  three  leagues  from  Capua.  The  emperor  Conrad  II. 
erected  it  into  a  county  (1038,)  the  investiture  of  which  he 
granted  to  Rainulph,  one  of  their  chiefs. 

At  this  same  period  the  sons  of  Tancred  conducted  a  new 
colony  from  Normandy  into  Lower  Italy.  Their  arrival  is  gen- 
erally referred  to  the  year  1033 ;  and  tradition  has  assigned  to 
Tancred  a  descent  from  RoUo  or  Robert  I.  Duke  of  Normandy. 


irlofKent.  WiUifttn 
:  the  head  of  aeoniide* 
irold,  nuar  Hasiingt  in 
Harold  waa  killed  in 
nd  was  the  reward  of 
>v  doininioni,  Wlliem 

fortresses  throughour 
rare  to  fill  with  Nor- 

trust  of  which  ho  had 
long  the  Normans,  and 
J  lurtunes.  He  intro- 
ereditary ;  he  ordered 
them  to  have  light  in 
veniiig.  He  even  at> 
)U0try,  by  establishing 
man-French  J  by  pub- 
lings  in  the  courts  of 
ice  11  happenr^d  that  the 
lan,  formed  a  new  sort 
jrn  English.  Willir»m 
he  Icings  of  Ernqfland. 
I  him,  and  founded  on 

d  England,  another  co- 
e  kingdom  of  '.he  two 
ich  this  kinsdom  was 
'  the  eleventTi  rentury, 
d  Arabians,*  who  were 
■.  A  band  of  nearly  a 
irar  and  glory,  landed  in 
services  to  the  Lombard 
.  The  bravery  which 
le  these  princer  Josirous 
a  a3  gunrdians  of  their 
IS.  The  Greek  princes 
iheir  services ;  and  the 
ing  them  to  his  interest, 
B  they  built  the  city  of 
'he  emperor  Conrad  II. 
Investiture  of  which  he 
I. 

icred  conducted  a  new 
!.  Their  arrival  is  gen- 
■adition  has  assigned  to 
1 1.  Duke  of  Normandy. 


moMsmS^ 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHIVI/ICIVIH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


\ 


Canadian  Inatltuta  for  Historical  Microraproductlona  /  Inititut  Canadian  da  microraproductlona  liistoriquaa 


rauoDiu.    A.  ».  968— 1074.  • 

These  new  adventureM  undertook  the  conquest  of  Apuli*  (1041,) 
whkh"hry  formed  into  a  county,  the  investiture  of  which  they 
Sned  f?om  Henry  III.  Robert  Guiscrd,  one  of  *•  »o"  »[ 
ToScred.  afterw«rd.'(1047)  completed  the  conquest  of  thjj  mo- 
vince;  he  added  to  it  that  of  Calabria,  of  which  he  had  aUo 
deprived  the  Greeks  (1059.)  and  assumed  the  title  of  Duke  of 
Aoulia  and  Calabria.  „  .u^.. 

^To  secure  himself  in  his  new  conquests,  as  well  "  •«  ;J«f  ? 
which  he  yet  meditated  from  the  two  empires.  Robert  concluded 
rVreatv  the  same  year  with  Pope  Nicholas  II.,  by  which  that 
pintS^confirmed  hJm  in  the  possession  o  the  dutchies  of  Apulia 
and  Calabria ;  granting  him  not  only  the  investiture  of  these,  bu 
momSg  him  also  that  of  Sicily,  whenever  he  should  expel 
fhe  G  eeks  and  Arabians  from  it.     Robert,  in  his  turn,  acknow. 
edged  himself  a  vassal  of  the  Pope,  and  engaged  '«  pay  him 
an  annual  tribute  of  twelve  pence,  money  of  Pavia,  for  every 
Mir  of  oxen  n  the  two  dutchies.'    Immediately  after  this  treaty, 
fflr  called  in  the  assistance  of  his  brother  Roger,  to  rescue 
Sy  fro.n  the  hands  of  the  Greeks  and  Arabs.«    No  sooner  had 
h^ccomplished  this  object,  than  he  conquered  in  succession 
fhe  prSalities  of  Bari,  Salerno,  Amalfi.  Sorrento,  and  Bene- 
vento ;  this  latter  city  he  surrendered  to  the  Pope.  . 

Such  is  the  origin  of  the  dutchies  of  Apuba  and  CahAria . 
which,  after  a  lapse  of  some  years,  were  formed  into  a  kingdom 
under  the  name  of  the  Two  Sicilies.         ,      , ,  .  , 

As  to  the  k?ngdoms  of  the  North,  the  light  of  historjr  scarcely 
began  to  dawn  there  until  the  introduction  of  Chrstianity.  whicK 
happened  about  the  end  of  the  tenth  or  beginning  of  the  eleven^ 
century.'     The  promulgation  of  the  Gospel  opened  a  way  mto 
Jhc  North  for  the'^diffusion  of  arts  and  letters.   Jho  Scand  na- 
vian  states.  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway,  which  tefore  that 
time  were  parcelled  out  among  independent  chie.s,  !>«&*'»    J*" 
to  form  plans  of  civil  government,  and  to  combine  into  settled 
monarchies.     Their  new  religion,  however,  did  not  inspire  these 
nations  with  its  meek  and  peaceable  virtues,  nor  overcome  their 
invincible  propensity  to  wars  and  rapine.     Their  heroism  wiu 
a  wUd  and  8av\ie  bravery,  which  emboldened  them  to  face  idl 
dangers,  to  undertake  desperate  adventures,  and  to  achieve  sud- 
den  conquests,  which  were  lost  and  won  with  the  same  rap  ditv. 
H«3d.  suriamed  Blmtand,  or  Blue  teeth,  was  the  first  aole 
monarch  of  the  Danes,  who  with  his  son  Sweyn  received  bap- 
S^"M?erUri  v*»qui»hed  by  Othothe  Great  (9^.)     Swevn 
MkiJed  to  pSanism;  but  his  son  Canute  the  Great,  on  his 
SSSon  to  Krone  1014.)  made  Christiwiitv  the  established 
Su^  9f  hi.  kingdom.    He  sent  for  monks  from  other  coun- 


M 


OHARBR  IV. 


tries,  founded  churches,  and  divided  the  kingdom  into  diocesses. 
Ambitious  to  distinguish  himself  as  a  conqueror,  he  afterwards 
subdued  England  and  Norway  (1028.)  To  these  he  added  a 
part  of  Scotland  and  Sweden ;  and  conferred  in  his  own  life- 
time  on  one  of  his  sons,  named  Sweyn,  the  kingdom  of  Nor- 
way, and  on  the  other,  named  Hardicanute,  that  of  Denmark. 
These  acquioitions,  however,  were  merely  temporary.  Sweyn 
was  driven  from  Norway  (1035;)  while  England  and  Scotland 
also  shook  oiT  the  Danish  yoke  (1042,)  on  the  death  of  Hardi- 
canute ;  and  Magnus  King  of  Norway,  even  made  himself  mas- 
ter of  Denmark,  which  did  not  recover  its  entire  independence 
until  the  death  of  that  prince  (1047.) 

The  ancient  dynasty  of  Kings  who  occupied  the  throne  of 
Denmark  from  the  most  remote  ages,  is  known  by  the  name  of 
Skioldiings,  because,  according  to  a  fabulous  tradition,  they 
were  descended  from  Shiold,  a  pretended  son  of  the  famous 
Odin  who,  from  being  the  conqueror,  was  exalted  into  the  deity 
of  the  North.  The  kings  wlio  reigned  after  Sweyn  II.  were 
called  Estritkides,  from  that  monarch,  who  was  the  son  of  Ulf 
a  Danish  nobleman,  and  Estrith,  sister  to  Canute  the  Great.  It 
was  this  Sweyn  that  raised  the  standard  of  revolt  against  Mag- 
nus King  of  Norway  (1044,)  and  kept  possession  of  the  throne 
until  his  death. 

In  Sweden,  the  kings  of  the  reigning  family,  descended,  as  is 
alleged,  from  Kegner  Lodbrok,  took  the  title  of  Kings  of  Upsal, 
the  place  of  their  residence.  Olaus  Skotkonung  rhnngnd  this 
title  into  that  of  King  of  Sweden.  He  was  the  first  monarch  of 
his  nation  that  embraced  Christianity,  and  exerted  himself  to 
propagate  it  in  his  kingdom.  Sigefroy,  Archbishop  of  York, 
who  was  sent  into  Sweden  by  Ethelred  King  of  England,  bap- 
tized Olaus  and  his  whole  family  (1001.)  The  conversion  of 
the  Swedes  would  have  been  more  expeditious,  had  not  the  zeal 
of  Olaus  been  restrained  by  the  Swedish  Diet  who  decided  for 
full  liberty  of  conscience.  Hence  the  strange  mixture,  both  of 
doctrine  and  worship,  that  long  prevailed  in  Sweden,  where  Je- 
sus Christ  was  profanely  associated  with  Odin,  and  the  Pagan 
goddess  Freya  confounded  with  the  Virgin.  Anund  Jacques, 
son  of  Olaus,  contributed  much  to  the  progress  of  Christianity ; 
and  his  zeal  procured  him  the  title  of  Idoat  Christian  King. 

In  Norway,  Olaus  I.,  surnamed  Tryggueaon,  towards  the  end 
of  the  tenth  century,  constituted  himself  the  apo'^tle  and  mis- 
sionary of  his  people,  and  undertook  to  convert  them  to  Chris- 
tianity by  torture  and  punishment.  Iceland  and  Greenland  * 
were  likewise  converted  by  his  efforts,  and  afterwards  became 
bis  tributaries  (1029.)    One  of  his  successors,  Olaua  II.|  called 


PBBioD  in.    A.  D.  902 — 1074. 


kingdom  into  diocesses. 
conqueror,  he  aAerwards 
To  these  he  added  a 
nferred  in  his  own  life- 
I,  the  kingdom  of  Nor< 
inute,  that  of  Denmark, 
ely  temporary.  Sweyn 
e  England  and  Scotland 
)  on  the  death  of  Hardi- 
even  made  himself  mas- 
its  entire  independence 

occupied  the  throne  of 
s  known  by  the  name  of 
Tabulous  tradition,  they 
ided  son  of  the  famous 
as  exahed  into  the  deity 
d  after  Sweyn  II.  were 
who  was  the  son  of  Ulf 
to  Canute  the  Great.  It 
d  of  revolt  against  Mag- 
possession  of  the  throne 

■  family,  descended,  as  is 
I  title  of  Kings  of  Upsal, 
kotkonung  changed   this 
was  the  first  monarch  of 
and  exerted  himself  to 
jy,  Archbishop  of  York, 
1  King  of  England,  bap- 
II.)     The  conversion  of 
iditious,  had  not  the  zeal 
ih  Diet  who  decided  for 
strange  mixture,  both  of 
id  in  Sweden,  where  Je- 
th  Odin,  and  the  Pagan 
irgin.     Anund  Jacques, 
trogress  of  Christianity ; 
fott  Chriitian  King, 
guaon,  towards  the  end 
>lf  the  apo'^tle  and  mis- 
convert  them  to  Chris- 
celand  and  Greenland  ' 
and  afterwards  became 
essors,  Olaua  II.,  called 


the  Fat,  and  also  the  Saint,  succeeded  in  extirpating  paganism 
from  Norway  (1020 ;)  but  he  used  the  cloak  of  religion  to  es- 
tablish his  own  authority,  by  destroying  several  petty  kings, 
who  before  this  time  possessed  each  their  own  dominions. 

Christianity  was  likewise  instrumental  in  throwing  some  rays 
of  light  on  the  history  of  the  Sclavonian  nations,  by  imparting 
to  them  the  knowledge  of  letters,  and  raising  them  in  the  scale 
of  importance  among  the  civilized  nations  of  Europe.  The 
Sclavonians  who  were  settled  north  of  the  Elbe,  had  been  sub- 
dued by  the  Germans,  and  compelled  to  embrace  Christianity. 
The  haughtiness  and  rigour  of  Thierry,  Margrave  of  the  North, 
induced  them  to  shake  off  the  yoke,  and  to  concert  a  general 
insurrection,  which  broke  out  in  the  reign  of  Otho  II.  (982.) 
The  episcopal  palaces,  churches  and  convents,  were  destroyed ; 
and  the  people  returned  once  more  to  the  superstitions  of  pagan- 
ism. Those  tribes  that  inhabited  Brandenburg,  part  of  Pome- 
rania  and  Mecklenburg,  known  formerly  under  the  name  of 
Wilzians  and  Welatabes,  formed  themselves  into  a  republican 
or  federal  body,  and  took  the  name  of  Lnitizians.  The  Abo- 
trites,  on  the  contrary,  the  Polabes,  and  the  Wagrians,"  were 
decidedly  for  a  monarchical  government,  the  capital  of  which 
was  fixed  at  Mecklenburg.  Some  of  the  princes  or  sovereigns 
of  these  latter  people  were  styled  Kings  of  the  Venedi.  The 
result  of  this  general  revolt  was  a  series  of  long  and  bloody  wars 
between  the  Germans  and  Sclavonians.  The  latter  defended 
their  civil  and  religious  liberties  with  a  remarkable  courage  and 
perseverance  ;  and  it  was  not  till  after  the  twelfth  century,  that 
they  were  subdued  and  reduced  to  Christianity  by  the  continued 
efforts  of  the  Dukes  of  Sa.xony,  and  the  Margraves  of  the  North, 
and  hj  means  of  the  crusades  niuj  colonies  which  the  Germans 
despatched  into  their  country.'" 

The  first  duke  of  Bohemia  that  received  baptism  from  the 
hands,  as  is  supposed,  of  Methodius,  bis^hop  of  Moravia  (894,) 
was  Borzivoy.  His  successors,  however,  returned  to  idolatry  ; 
and  it  was  not  till  near  the  end  of  the  tenth  century,  properly 
speaking,  and  in  the  reign  of  Boleslaus  II.,  surnamed  the  Pious, 
that  Christianity  became  the  established  religion  of  Bohemia 
(909.)  These  dukes  were  vassals  and  tributaries  of  the  German 
empire ;  and  their  tribute  consisted  of  dOO  silver  marks,  and  120 
oxen.  They  exercised,  howeyer,  all  the  rights  of  sovereignty 
over  the  people ;  their  reign  Kvas  a  system  of  terror,  and  they 
seldom  took  the  opinion  or  advice  of  their  nobles  and  grandees. 
The  succession  was  hereditary  in  the  reigning  dynasty ;  and 
the  system  of  partition  was  in  use,  otherwise  the  order  of  suc- 
cession would  have  been  fixed  and  permanent.    Over  a  number 


fl  OBAmt  IV. 

of  theM  tttftitionary  princes,  one  was  vested  with  cert»in  rights 
of  superiority,  under  the  title  of  Grand  Prince,  according  to  a 
custom  found  very  prevalent  among  the  half  civilized  nations 
of  the  north  and  east  of  Europe."  The  greater  proportion  of 
the  inhabitants,  the  labouring  classes,  artisans,  and  domestics, 
were  serfs,  and  oppressed  by  the  tyrannical  yoke  of  their  mas- 
ters. The  public  sale  of  men  was  even  practised  in  Bohemia ; 
the  tithe,  or  tenth  part  of  which,  belonged  to  the  sovereign.  The 
descendants  of  Borzivoy  possessed  the  throne  of  Bohemia  until 
1306,  when  the  male  line  became  extinct. 

The  Poles  were  a  nation  whose  name  does  not  occur  in  his- 
tory before  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century ;  and  we  owe  to 
Christianity  the  first  intimations  that  we  have  regarding  this 
people.     Mieczislaus  I.,  the  first  duke  or  prince  of  the  Poles  of 
whom  we  possess  any  authentic  accounts,  embraced  Christianity 
(966,)  at  the  solicitation  of  his  spouse  Dambrowka,  sister  of 
Boleslaus  II.,  duke  of  Bohemia.     Shortly  after,  the  first  bish- 
opric in  Poland,  that  of  Posen,  was  founded  by  Otho  the  Great. 
Christianity  did  not,  however,  tame  the  ferocious  habits  of  the 
Poles,  who  remained  for  a  long  time  without  the  least  progress 
in  mental  cultivation."     Their  government,  as  wretched  as  that 
of  Bohemia,  subjected  the  great  body  of  the  nation  to  the  most 
debasing  servitude.     The  ancient  sovereigns  of  Poland  were 
hereditary.     They  ruled  most  despotically,  and  with  a  rod  of 
iron ;  and,  although  they  acknowledged  themselves  vassals  and 
tributaries  of  the  German  emperors,  they  repeatedly  broke  out 
into  open  rebellion,  asserted  their  absolute  independence,  and 
waged  a  successful  war  against  their  masters.     Boleslaus,  son 
of  Mieczislaus  I.,  took  advantage  of  the  troubles  which  rose  m 
Germany  on  the  death  of  Otho  III.,  to  possess  himself  of  the 
Marches  of  Lusatia  and  Budissin,  or  Bautzen,  which  the  Em- 
peror Henry  II.  afterwards  granted  him  as  fiefs.     This  same 
prince,  in  despite  of  the  Germans,  on  the  death  of  Henry  II. 
(1026,)  assumed  the  royal  dignity.    Mieczislaus  II.,  son  of  Bo- 
leslaus, after  having  cruelly  ravaged  the  country  situate  between 
the  Oder,  the  Elbe,  and  the  Saal,  was  compelled  to  abdicate  the 
throne,  and  also  to  restore  those  provinces  which  his  father  had 
wrested  from  the  Empire.    The  male  descendants  of  Mieczis- 
laus I.  reigned  in  Poland  until  the  death  of  Casimu  the  Great 
(1370.)    This  dynasty  of  kings  is  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Piasts,  or  Piasses,  so  called  from  one  Piast,  alleged  to  have 

been  its  founder.  ; «  ,     .         •    j  a.- 

Silesia,  which  was  then  a  province  of  Poland,  received  the 
light  of  the  Gospel  when  it  first  visited  that  kingdom ;  and  h«d 
fcr  ite  apostle,  as  is  supposed,  a  Romish  priest  named  Geofirjr, 
who  is  reckoned  the  first  bishop  of  Smogra  (966.) 


! 


L 


ntioD  III.    A.  o.  96^—1074 


«ted  with  certyin  rights 
Prince,  according  to  a 
half  civilized  nations 
le  greater  proportion  of 
artisans,  and  domestics, 
nical  yoke  of  their  mas- 
n  practised  in  Bohemia ; 
i  to  the  sovereign.  The 
throne  of  Bohemia  until 
ict. 

does  not  occur  in  his- 

ntury;  and  we  owe  to 

we  have  regarding  this 

or  prince  of  the  Poles  of 

ts,  embraced  Christianity 

se  Dambrowka,  sister  of 

trtly  after,  the  first  bish- 

nded  by  Otho  the  Great. 

le  ferocious  habits  of  the 

rithout  the  least  progress 

ment,  as  wretched  as  that 

of  the  nation  to  the  most 

rereigns  of  Poland  were 

ically,  and  with  a  rod  of 

id  themselves  vassals  and 

hey  repeatedly  broke  out 

solute  independence,  and 

masters.     Boleslaus,  son 

he  troubles  which  rose  in 

0  possess  himself  of  the 

Bautzen,  which  the  Em- 

liim  as  fiefs.     This  same 

fi  the  death  of  Henry  II. 

Aieczislaus  II.,  son  of  Bo« 

le  country  situate  between 

compelled  to  abdicate  the 

Qces  which  his  father  had 

» descendants  of  Mieciis- 

ath  of  Casimir  the  Great 

lown  by  the  name  of  the 

le  Piut,  alleged  to  have 

i  of  Poland,  received  die 
d  that  kingdom ;  and  had 
sh  priest  named  Geoffiy, 
nogra  (966.) 


In  Rasaia,  Vladimir  the  Great,  great-grandson  of  Rnrie,  wm 
the  first  grand  duke  that  embraced  Christianity,  (968.)  He  wm 
baptized  at  Cherson  in  Taurida,  on  the  occasion  of  his  marriaoB 
with  Anna  Romanowna,  sister  of  Basil  II.  and  Constantine  VIlI., 
Emperors  of  Constantinople.  It  was  this  prince  that  introduced 
the  Greek  ritual  into  Russia,  and  founded  several  schools  and 
convents.  The  alphabet  of  the  Greeks  was  imported  into  Rat- 
sia  along  with  their  religion  ;  and  from  the  reign  of  Vladimir, 
that  nation,  more  powerful  and  united  than  most  of  the  other 
European  states,  carried  on  a  lucrative  commerce  with  the  Greek 
empire,  of  which  it  became  at  length  a  formidable  rival. 

At  the  death  of  that  prince  (1015,)  Russia  comprehended 
those  vast  regions  which,  from  east  to  west,  extend  from  the  Icy 
Sea  and  the  mouth  of  the  Dwina,  to  the  Niemen,  the  Dniester, 
and  the  Bug ;  and  southward  of  this  last  river,  to  the  Carpathkn 
Mountains,  and  the  confines  of  Hungary  and  Moldavia.  The 
city  of  Kiow  on  the  Dnieper,  was  the  capital  of  the  empire,  and 
the  residence  of  the  Grand  Dukes.  This  period  also  gave  rite 
to  those  unfortunate  territorial  partitions  which,  by  dividing  ths 
Russian  monarchy,  exposed  it  to  the  insults  and  ravages  of  the 
neighbouring  nations.  Jaroslaus,  one  of  the  sons  of  Vladimir« 
made  himself  famous  as  a  legislator,  and  supplied  the  NovogiK 
rodians  with  laws  to  regulate  their  courts  of  justice.  No  leM 
the  friend  and  protector  of  letters,  he  employed  himself  in  tran»> 
lating  Greek  books  into  the  Sclavonian  language.  He  founded 
a  public  school  at  Novogorod,  in  which  three  hundred  children 
were  educated  at  his  sole  expense.  His  daughter  Anna  married 
Henry  I.,  King  of  France ;  and  this  princess  was  the  commoa 
mother  of  all  the  kings  and  princes  of  the  Capetian  dynasty. 

Hungary  was  divided,  in  the  tenth  century,  among  severel 
petty  princes,  who  acknowledged  a  common  chief,  styled  the 
Grand  Prince,  whose  limited  author! .y  was  reduced  to  asimpl* 
pre-eminence  in  rank  and  dignity.  Each  of  these  princes  as- 
sembled armies,  and  made  predatory  excursions,  plundering  and' 
ravaging  the  neighbouring  countries 'at  their  pleasure.  Tfai 
East  and  the  West  suffered  long  under  the  scourge  of  these  atro- 
cious pillagers.  Christianity,  which  was  introduced  among  them 
about  the  end  of  the  tenth  century,  was  alone  capable  of  soft- 
ening the  manners,  and  tempering  the  ferocity  or  this  nation. 
Peregrine,  bishop  of  Pa6sau,  encouraged  by  OUio  the  Om^ 
and  patronized  by  the  Grand  Prince  Geisa,  sent  the  first  mu^ 
sionaries  into  Hungary  (973.)  St.  Adelbert,  bishopof  PngiMi 
had  the  honour  toMiptise  the  son  of  Geirn,  called  Waic  (Wlj^ 
bat  who  received  then  the  baptismal  name  of  Slej^n. 

This  latter  prince,  having  eueceeded  his  father  (997,)  ehaagii 

TOL.  I.  9 


i 


IP  MUniK  IV. 

MttMlv  the  asDMt  of  Hunmry.    He  aaeumed  the  royel  dignity. 
3a  L  comSS  of  PoJT^ylvester  II..  who  sent  fiim  on  this 
^^ni^AngJl  &.'^M  it  i.  called ;  the  same,  accord. 
S  to T«dition.%hich  the  Hungarians  use  to  this  d«y  m  the 
S?on.uW  of  their  kings.     At  once  the  aposUe  "jd  the  law- 
iri»er  of  his  country,  Stephen  I.  combined  politics  with  justice 
Sideroplojed  both  severity  and  clemency  in  reforming  his  sub- 
iit.  iKund^d  several  bishoprics,  extfrpated  idolatry,  banish 
S  anarchy  and  «ve  to  the  auLrity  of  L  --re^n.  a  vi^ou 
and  efficiency  which  it  never  before  possessed.     To  him  like- 
"self  generally  ascribed  the  political  division  0/ Hungary  in  o 
Tountilsfas  a  Jthe  institution  of  palatines,  and  great  o|^^^^^^ 
of  the  crown.     He  conquered  Transylvania,  about  lOW-J,  ac 
SX  toThe  opinion  3f  most  moder\  Hungarian  authors,  and 
Sef  it  into  a\listinct  government,  the  chiefs  of  which,  called 
Vaivodes,  held  immediately  of  his  crown.  „„,>,;„„ 

Thehistory  of  theGreek  empire  presents,  at  this  t'™e. n?;»''"| 
out  a  tissue  of  corruption,  fanaticism  and  perfidy.    The  throne 
-insecure  as  that  of  the  Western  empire  had  been,  was  filled 
"t«Sy  by  a  Vuccession  of  usurpers;  most  of  whom  rose 
£  theVwest  conditions  of  life,  and  o^ed  their  eleva  on 
JSdy  to  the  perpetration  of  crime  and  parricide.     A  supersti- 
Sn  «088  in  Us  nature,  bound  as  with  a  spell  the  minds  of  the 
SeeS  and  paJdyzed  heir  courage.  It  was  carefully  cherished 
Who  monkrwh^o  had  found  means  to  Po«X' jJ^^^S;; 
ife  government,  by  procuring  the  exclusion  of  ^e  '.ec«larxl«gy 
from  the  episcopate;  and  directing  the  attention  of  pnnces  t» 
SSL  Iheologic^  controversies,  oft^n  exceedingly  frivolou. 
Whlcfc  were  oroduced  and  re-produced  almost  without  inter- 
2«tenT  iSencHriginated  those  internal  commotions  «id 
STrliuons.  Uiose  schisms  and  sects,  whch  more  than  once 
AiwiAtA  the  emoire,  and  shook  the  throne  lUeU. 

ThVse  Srickl  dispiites.  the  rivalry  between  the  two  pa- 
triiShrof  RTe'Td  Con'Lt.nUnople."  an5  the  contests  respect- 
inTfhe  Bulmrian  converts,  led  to  an  ineparable  schism  between 
Z  S«kK  "he  Ea,t  aid  the  West  This  controversy  was 
TJkSn\y  agitated  under  the  pontificate  of  Jf^n  VI  I.,  «^^ 
»k«n  the  OTlebrated  Photius  waa  patriarch  of  Constantinople , 
2?  Ate  of  Sreffort.  whi,J.  .e^ral  of  *e  Greek  empsrojj 
SS  pitiWh.  afterward,  made  to  effect  a  union  7»«J  »^«;^^^ 
Sl^c  animosity  of  both  only  grew  more  implacable,  ana 
SidrtliSTl final  rapture  litween  the  two  chu'ches.  A 
JSS^J^wSwoA  ao  capricious  as  that  of  Constantinople, 

^^*       th«HMn»i  Ostrogoths,  AT«M,Baigwi«MiK««««»^ 


imed  the  royal  dignity. 
,  -who  sent  him  on  this 
led ;  the  same,  accord« 
use  to  this  day  in  the 
apostle  and  the  law* 
politics  with  justice 
in  reforming  his  sub- 
pated  idolatry,  banish 
the  sovere^n,  a  vigour 
isRSsed.     To  him  like- 
vision  of  Hungary  into 
les,  and  great  officers 
nia,  about  1002-3,  ac- 
iungarian  authors,  and 
!  chiefs  of  which,  called 
1. 

nts,  at  this  time,  nothing 

d  perfidy.    The  throne, 

ire  had  been,  was  filled 

;  most  of  whom  rose 

1  owed  their  elevation 

parricide.     A  supersti- 

X  spell  the  minds  of  the 

was  carefully  cherished 

0  possess  themselves  ot 
ion  of  the  secular  clergy 
i  attention  of  princes  to 

1  exceedingly  frivolous, 
d  almost  without  inter- 
[iternal  commotions  and 

which  more  than  once 
ne  itself. 

airy  between  the  two  pa- 
and  the  contests  respect- 
reparable  schism  between 
t.  This  controversy  was 
Scate  of  John  VIII.,  and 
iarch  of  Constantinople ; 
il  of  the  Greek  emperors 
t  a  union  with  the  Romish 
iw  more  implacable,  and 
m  Uie  two  churches.  A 
as  that  of  Constantinople, 
to  the  inroads  of  foreign 
iza,  Bulgarians,  Ruasiins, 


FBiioD  m.    A.  D.  Ml— 1074.  M 

Hungarians,  Chanrs,  and  Patzinaeites,  harasiM  the  empin  on 
the  side  of  the  Danube ;  while  the  Persians**  were  ineessihdy 
exhausting  its  strength  in  the  East,  and  on  the  side  of  the  Bii> 
phrates.  Ail  these  nations,  however,  were  content  with  merely 
desolating  the  frontiers  of  the  empire,  and  imposing  frequent 
contributions  on  the  Greeks.  It  was  a  task  reserved  for  the 
Lombards,  the  Arabs,  the  Normans,  and  the  Turks,  to  detach 
from  it  whole  provinces,  and  by  degrees  to  hasten  its  downAill. 

The  Lombards  were  the  first  that  conquered  from  the  Greeks 
the  greater  part  of  Italy.  Palestine,  Syria,  and  the  whole  pos- 
sessions of  the  Empire  in  Greater  Asia,  as  well  as  Egypt,  Nor- 
thern Africa,  and  the  Isle  of  Cyprus,  were  seiied  in  the  seventh 
century  by  the  Arabs,  who  made  themselves  masters  of  Sicihf, 
and  three  times  laid  siege  to  Constantinople  (669,  717, 71K) 
They  would  have  even  succeeded  in  taking  this  Eastern  capital, 
and  aniiiliilaiing  the  Greek  empire,  had  not  the  courage  of  Leo 
the  Isaurian,  and  the  surprising  effects  of  the  Gregeois,  or  Greek 
Fire,'^  rendered  their  efforts  useless.  At  length,  in  the  eleventh 
century,  the  Normans  conquered  all  that  remained  to  the  Greeka 
in  Italy  ;  while  the  Seljuk  Turks,  who  must  not  be  confounded 
with  the  Ottoman  Turks,  deprived  them  of  the  greater  part  of 
Asia  Minor. 

Turk  is  the  generic  appellation  for  all  the  Tartar  nations,  ^ 
mentioned  by  the  ancients  under  the  name  of  Scythians.  Their 
original  country  was  in  those  vast  regions  situate  to  the  north 
of  Mount  Caucasus,  and  eastward  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  beyond 
the  Jihon,  or  Oxus  of  the  ancients,  especially  in  Charasm,  Tran- 
soxiana,  Turkestan,  &c.  About  the  eighth  century,  the  Arab* 
had  passed  the  Oxus,  and  rendered  the  Turks  of  Charasm  and 
Transoxiana  their  tributaries.  They  instructed  them  in  the  re- 
ligion and  laws  of  Mahomet ;  but,  by  a  transition  rather  extra- 
ordinary, it  afterwards  happened,  that  the  vanquished  imposed 
theyoke  on  their  new  masters.  ^ 

llie  empl'>-e  of  the  Arabs,  already  enfeebled  by  the  territorial 
losses  which  have  been  mentionei',  declined  mure  and  more, 
from  about  the  middle  of  the  ni  Jth  century.  The  CaKphs  of 
Bagdad  had  committed  the  mistake  of  trusting  their  persona  to 
a  military  guard  of  foreigners,**  viz.  ^he  Turks,  who,  taking  ad- 
vantage of  the  effeminacy  of  these  princes,  soon  arrogated  to 
themselves  the  whole  authority,  and  abused  it  so  far,  as  ti  a  >« 
the  Caliphs  entirely  dependent  on  their  will,  and  to  vest  \\  ,  ,  "^  < 
selves  the  hereditary  succession  of  the  government.  Thu  w 
the  very  centre  of  the  caliphate  of  Baj^ad,  there  rose  a  multi- 
tude of  new  sovereignties  or  dynasties,  the  heads  of  which, 
under  the  title  of  Emir  or  Commander,  exercised  die  sapreoM 


IT. 


ffdionity.  and  that  rather  of  a  spiritual  than  a  temporal  nature. 
BMidet  the  external  marks  of  homage  and  res|>ect  which  were 
mid  him,  hia  name  continued  to  be  proclaimed  in  the  mosques. 
Snd  inscribed  on  the  coined  roorey.  By  him  were  granted  all 
Uttera-patent  of  inrestiture,  robes,  swords,  and  standards,  accom- 
DMiifld  with  high-sounding  titles  ;  which  did  not,  however,  pre- 
tmt  these  usurpers  from  maltreating  their  ancient  maolers, 
inanlting  their  person,  or  even  attempting  iheir  lives,  whenever 
it  might  serve  to  promote  their  interest. 

A  general  revolution  broke  out  under  the  caliph  Kahdi.  Iha 
prince,  wishing  to  arrest  the  progress  of  usurpaiion,  iho.ighi  ot 
Ming  a  new  minister,  whom  he  invested  with  the  title  of 
Emir-^-Omra,  or  Commander  of  Commanders  ;  and  ronferred 
on  him  powers  much  more  ample  than  those  of  his  vizier.  I  hi« 
minister,  whom  he  selected  from  the  Emirs,  officiated  even  iii 
th«  nand  mosque  of  Bagdad,  instead  of  the  caliph  ;  av.d  his 
rime  was  pronounced  with  equal  honours  in  the  divine  service 
th  ^uffhout  the  empire.  This  device,  which  the  cnliph  employ- 
«i  tore-establish  his  aulhoriiy,  only  tended  to  accelerate  its 
:  instruction.  The  Bowides,  the  most  powerful  dynasty  among 
the  Emirs,  arrogated  to  themselves  the  di(,milv  of  Lhicl  Coin- 
mander  (945,)  and  seized  both  the  city  and  the  sovereignty  of 
Burdad.  The  Caliph,  stripped  of  all  temporal  power,  was  then 
only  grand  Iman,  or  sovereign-pontiff  of  the  Mussulman  religion, 
luader  the  protection  of  the  Bowidian  prince,  who  kepi  him  as 
his  prisoner  at  Bagdad. 

Such  was  the  sad  situation  of  the  Arabian  empire,  fallen 
from  its  ancient  glory,  when  a  numerous  Turkish  tribe,  from 
the  centre  of  Turkestan,  appeared  on  the  stage,  overthrew  the 
dominions  of  the  Bowides  ;  and,  after  imposing  new  fetters  on 
the  cnlipha,  laid  the  foundation  of  a  powerful  empire,  known  by 
the  nanie  of  the  Seljukides.     This  roving  tribe,  which  look  its 
MUne  from  Seliuk  a  Musaulman  Turk,  after  having  wandered 
for  some  time  with  their  flocks  in  Transoxiana,  passed  the 
Jihon  to  seek  pasturage  in  the  province  of  Chorasan.     Kein- 
fisrced  by  new  Turkish  colonies  from  Transoxiana,  this  coali- 
tion became  in  a  little  time  so  powerful,  that  Togrul  Beg, 
arandsoo  of  Seljuk,  had  the  boldness  to  cause  hirnself  to  be 
Unclaimed  Sultan  in  the  city  of  Niesabur,"  the  capital  of  Cho- 
nMUi.  and  formally  announced  himself  as  a  conqueror  {10«») 
This  prince,  and  the  sultana  hit  successors,  subdued  by  do- 
meea  most  of  the  provinces  in  Asia,  which  formed  the  caliphate 
hi  Baadad."     They  annihilated  the  power  of  the  Bowides, 
leducml  the  Caliphs  to  the  condition  of  dependenU,  and  at 
length  attacked  aleo  the  possessions  of  the  Greek  empire. 


ph  thui  t  pre^minene* 
than  a  temporal  nature, 
jid  respect  which  were 
laimed  in  the  mosques, 
y  him  were  granted  all 
I,  and  standards,  accom- 
\  did  not,  however,  pre- 
their  ancient  maolers, 
ig  their  lives,  whenever 

the  caliph  Rahdi.  Thai 
usurpation,  ihotighl  ot 
rested  with  the  title  of 
nanders  ;  and  conferred 
those  of  his  vizier.  Thi« 
imirs,  ofRcialed  even  in 
of  the  caliph  ;  and  hia 
irs  in  the  divine  service 
■hich  the  cnliph  employ- 
tended  to  accelerate  its 
lowerful  dynasty  among 
di^mity  of  Chief  Com- 
f  and  the  sovereignty  of 
nnporal  power,  was  then 
the  Mussulman  religion, 
iiince,  who  kept  him  us 

Arabian  empire,  fallen 
>U5  Turkish  tribe,  from 
he  stage,  overthrew  the 
imposing  new  fetters  on 
iverful  empire,  known  by 
■ing  tribe,  which  took  its 
,  after  having  wandered 
Pransoxiana,  passed  the 
ice  of  Chorasan.  Rein- 
Transoxiana,  this  coali- 
etful,  that  Togrul  Beg, 

to  cause  himself  to  be 
ibur,"  the  capital  of  Cho- 
f  as  a  conqueror  (1038.) 
cessors,  subdued  by  de- 
hich  formed  the  caliphate 

power  of  the  Bowides, 
»  of  dependents,  and  at 
f  the  Greek  empire. 


ratioD  IV.      .  D.  1074—1300.  M 

AIp«AnUn,  the  nephew  and  immediate  sueceate.-  of  Tofnil 
Beg,  gained  a  signal  Tictory  in  Armenia,  over  the  Emperor 
Romanua  Diogenes  (1071)  who  was  there  taken  prisonert 
The  confusion  which  this  event  caused  in  the  Greek  empire, 
was  favourable  to  the  Turks,  who  aeiied  not  only  what  re* 
mained  to  the  Greeks  in  Syria,  but  also  several  provinces  ia 
Asia  Minor,  such  as  Cilicia,  Isauria,  Pamphylia,  Ljrcia,  Piaidia, 
Lycaonia,  Cappadocia,  Galatia,  Pontus,  and  Bythinia. 

The  empire  of  the  SeUukides  was  in  its  most  flouriahinff 
state  under  the  sultan  Malek  Shah,  the  son  and  successor  oi 
Alp-Arslan.  The  caliph  Cayem,  in  confirming  to  this  prince 
the  title  of  Sultan  and  Chief  Commander,  added  also  that  of 
Commander  of  the  Faithful,  which  before  that  time  had  never 
been  conferred  but  on  the  caliphs  alone.  On  the  death  of  Ma- 
lek (1092,)  the  disputes  that  rose  among  his  sons  occasioned  a 
civil  war,  and  the  partition  of  the  empire.  These  vast  territoriee 
were  divided  among  three  principal  dynasties  descended  from 
Seljuk,  those  of  Iran,  Kerman,  and  Roum,  or  Rome.  Thla 
latter  branch,  which  ascribes  its  origiVi  to  Solinian,  great-grand- 
son of  Seljuk,  obtained  the  provinces  of  Asia  Minor,  which 
the  Seljukides  had  conquered  from  the  Greeks.  The  princes 
of  this  dynasty  are  known  in  the  history  of  the  Crusades  bj^ 
the  name  of  Sultans  of  Iconium  or  Cogni,  a  city  of  Lycaonia, 
where  the  sultans  established  their  residence  after  being  de- 
prived by  the  crusaders  of  the  city  of  Nice  in  Bythinia.  The 
most  powerful  of  the  three  dynasties  was  that  of  the  Seljukidea 
of  Iran,  whose  sway  extended  over  the  greater  part  of"^  Upper 
Asia.  It  soon,  however,  fell  from  its  grandeur,  and  its  states 
were  divided  into  a  number  of  petty  sovereignties,  over  which 
the  Emirs  or  governors  of  cities  and  provmces  usurped  the 
supreme  power.**  These  divisions  prepared  the  way  for  the 
conquests  of  the  crusaders  in  Syria  and  Palestine ;  and  fur- 
nished also  to  the  Caliphs  of  Bagdad  the  means  of  shaking  off 
the  yoke  of  the  Seljukides  (1152,)  and  recovering  the  sove- 
reignty of  Irak- Arabia,  or  Bagdad. 


CHAPTER  ▼. 

PERIOD  IT. 


From  Pope  Gregory  VII.  to  Boniface  VIII.    a.  d.  1074— 1300t 
A  NEW  and  powerful  monarchy  rose  on  the  ruins  of  the  Ger- 
man empire,  that  of  the  Roman  Pontiffs ;  which  monopolized 
both  spiritual  and  temporal  dominion,  and  extended  its  influ* 


B^    \» 


emAmt  ▼• 


SLhitlDn     InJ^iSant  at  the  depraylty  of  lh«  age,  which  wa. 
«!-Tto  WDlaca  Sie  government  of  kin^s.  which  had  totally 

?.*T.d  of  .  kS"  ".mily.  had  p...d  .1".  «.y  «■"<''"" 

Sl^Lid  a  vassal  of  the  Holy  See  Taking  advantage,  hke- 
wJe  of  the  minority  of  Henfy  IV..  he  caused,  this  same  year, 
fo  a  council  held  at  Rome.  L  famous  decree  to  be  passed 
whkh  bv  eservingthe  election  of  the  pontiffs  pn"«^'P,^"y  '" 
5e  oadYnJls  coivSr^^  the  elective  privileges  wliich  the  em. 
STrorsformerlv  enjoyed  in  virtue  of  their  crown,  rights,  into  a 
Prrnaf  SvoJr  gJaJlted  by  the  Pope,  and  emanatmg  from  the 

"onle^dTaS;  of  Pope  Nicolas  II..  Cardinal  Hildebrand  pro- 
cured  the  election  of  Alexander  II..  without  waking  for  the  or- 
diror  concur  ence  of  the  Imperial  court;  and  he  succeeded  m 
iailiS  h  m  in  the  apostolical  chair  against  Pope  Honorius 
n    who m  ?he7eigning  empress  had  destined  for  that  honour. 
Ai'irn-"h  leing  raisel  himself  to  the  pontfical  throne    scarce- 
W  had  he'obu"id  the  Imperial  confirmation,  when  he  put  m 
execution  "he  uoiect  whic'h  he  had  so  long  been  concerting  and 
S  ns.  viz   the  erecting  of  a  spiritual  despotism,^    extend- 
Co  Ssts  as  well  as  kings  ;  making  the  supreme  pont  ff  the 
S^r-;;;  all  affairs,  both  ci?il  and  -clesiastical--the  bestower 
Of  favours,  and  the  dispenser  of  crown..     The  basis  of  this 


1 


niloo  IT.    A.  B.  1074 — 1900. 


108 


om.  ThU  tuprentMy, 
sm  is  itill  an  object  of 
jns,  was  the  work  of 
it  undertnkinga,  m  re- 
im  above  h\»  timet,  aa 

boundless  reach  of  his 
of  the  age,  which  was 
I  the  gross  immorality 
oth  laymen  and  ecclesi- 
reformer  of  morals,  and 

this  project,  it  was  ne- 
ngs,  which  had  totally 
iitnority,  whose  salutary 
d  the  low,  might  restore 
iousness,  and  impose  a 
origin.  This  authority 
e,  of  which  Gregory  was 

.  the  son  of  a  carpenter 
,  or  according  to  others, 
ed  the  way  to  its  future 
whose  counsels  he  had 
debruiid.     While  Cardi- 
enter  into  a  treaty  with 
that  brave  Norman  as  an 
Taking  advanUge,  like- 
caused,  this  same  year, 
us  decree  to  be  passed, 
le  pontifls  principally  to 
irivileges  which  the  em- 
heir  crown*  rights,  into  a 
and  emanating  from  the 

Cardinal  Hildebrand  pro- 
'ithout  waiting  for  the  or- 
mrt ;  and  he  succeeded  in 
»ir  against  Pope  Honorius 
destined  for  that  honour, 
pontifical  throne,  scarce- 
rmation,  when  he  put  in 
}  long  been  concerting  and 
itual  despotism,^  extend- 
ng  the  supreme  pontifTthe 
clesiastical— the  bestower 
)wa«.    The  basis  of  this 


dominion  wh,  that  the  Vicar  of  Jeaua  Christ  on^t  to  be  la* 

Crior  to  all  human  power.    The  better  to  attain  nie  object,  be 
gan  by  withdrawing  himself  and  hia  clergy  from  the  autho- 
rity of  the  secular  pnnces. 

At  that  time  the  city  of  Rome,  and  the  whole  ecelesiaatical 
states,  aa  well  aa  the  greater  part  of  Italy,  were  subject  to  the 
kings  of  Germany,  who,  in  virtue  of  their  beinc  kings  of  Italy 
and  Roman  emperors,  nominated  or  confirmed  the  popes,  and 
installed  the  prefects  of  Rome,  who  there  received  the  power  of 
the  sword  in  their  name.  They  sent  also  every  year  commit' 
sioners  to  Rome,  to  levy  the  money  due  to  the  royal  treasury. 
The  popes  used  to  date  their  acts  from  the  years  of  the  empe- 
ror's reign,  and  to  stamp  their  coin  with  his  name ;  and  all  the 
higher  clergy  were  virtually  bound  and  subject  to  the  secular 
power,  by  the  solemn  investiture  of  the  ring  and  the  crosier. 
This  investiture  gave  to  the  emperors  and  the  other  sovereigns 
the  right  of  nominating  and  connrming  bishops,  and  even  of  de- 
posing them  if  they  saw  cause.  It  gave  them,  moreover,  the 
right  of  conferrinff,  at  their  pleasure,  those  fiefs  and  royal  pre- 
rogatives which  the  munificence  of  princos  had  vested  in  the 
Church.  The  emperors,  in  putting  bishops  and  prelates  in 
poRttcssion  of  these  fiefs,  used  the  symbols  of  the  ring  and  the 
crosier,  which  were  badges  of  honour  belonging  to  bishops  and 
abbots.  They  made  them,  at  the  same  time,  take  the  oath  of 
fidelity  and  allegiance  ;  and  this  was  the  origin  of  their  depen- 
dence, and  their  obligation  to  furnish  their  princes  with  troops, 
and  to  perform  military  service. 

Gregory  VII.  prohibited,  under  pain  of  excommunication,  all 
sovereigns  to  exercise  the  rights  of  investiture,  by  a  formal  de- 
cree which  he  published  in  a  council  assembled  at  Rome  in  1074. 
There  was  more  than  the  simple  ceremony  of  the  ring  and  the 
crosier  implied  in  this  interdict.  He  aimed  at  depriving  princes  of 
the  right  of  nominating,  confirming,  or  deposing  prelates,  as  well 
as  of  receiving  their  fealty  and  homage,  and  exacting  military 
service.  He  thus  broke  all  those  ties  by  which  the  bishops 
were  held  in  allegiance  and  subordination  to  princes  ;  making 
them,  in  this  respect,  entirely  independent.  In  suppressing  in- 
vestitures, the  pontiff  had  yet  a  more  important  object  in  view. 
It  was  his  policy  to  withdraw  both  himself  and  his  successors, 
as  well  as  the  whole  ecclesiastical  state,  from  the  power  of  the 
German  kings;  especially  by  abolishing  the  right  which  these 
princes  had  so  long  exercised  of  nominating  and  confirming  the 
ropes.  He  saw,  in  fact,  that  if  he  could  succeed  in  rendering 
the  clergy  independent  of  the  secular  power,  it  would  follow,  by 
a  natural  consequence,  that  the  Pope,  ab  being  supreme  head  of 


J.'.\ 


104  cRA?nii  r. 

the  clevgy,  would  no  longer  be  dependent  on  the  emperors ; 
while  the  emperor,  excluded  from  the  nomination  and  mvesti- 
ture  of  bishops,  would  have  still  less  right  to  interfere  m  the 
election  of  pontiffs. 

This  afltoir,  equally  interesting  to  all  sovereigns,  was  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  the  kings  of  Germany,  who  had  committed 
the  unfortunate  error  of  putting  the  greater  part  of  their  domains 
into  the  hands  of  ecclesiastics  ;  so  that  to  divest  those  princes 
of  the  right  to  dispose  of  ecclesiastical  fiefs,  was  '•y  fact  to  de- 
prive them  of  nearly  the  half  of  their  empire.  The  bishops, 
vainly  flattering  themselves  with  the  prospect  ol  an  imaginary 
liberty,  forgot  the  valuable  gifts  with  which  the  emperors  had 
loaded  them,  and  enlisted  under  the  banners  of  the  Pope.  They 
turned  against  the  secular  princes  those  arms  which  the  latter 
had  imprudently  trusted  in  their  hands. 

There  yet  subsisted  another  bond  of  union  which  connected 
the  clergy  with  the  civil  and  political  orders  of  society,  and 
gave  them  an  interest  in  the  protection  of  ihe  secular  authority, 
and  that  was,  the  marriages  of  the  priests  ;  a  custom  in  use  at 
that  time  over  a  great  part  of  the  West,  as  it  still  is  in  the  Greek 
and  Eastern  Churches.  It  is  true,  that  the  law  of  celibacy,  al- 
ready recommended  strongly  by  St.  Augustine,  had  been  adopted 
by  the  Romish  Church,  which  neglected  no  means  of  introducing 
it  by  degrees  into  all  the  churches  of  the  Catholic  communion. 
It  had  'net  with  better  success  in  Italy  and  the  south  of  Europe 
than  in  the  northern  countries ;  and  the  priests  continued  to 
marry,  not  only  in  Germany,  England,  and  the  kmgdoms  of  the 
North,  but  even  in  France,  Spain,  and  Italy,  notwithstanding 
the  law  of  celibacy,  which  had  been  sanctioned  in  vain  by  a 

multiiude  of  councils.  ,      .      ,  ,  »  i 

Gregory  VII.,  perceiving  that,  to  render  the  clergy  completely 
dependent  on  the  Pope,  it  would  be  necessary  to  break  this 
powerful  connexion,  renewed  ihe  law  of  celibacy,  in  a  council 
held  at  Rome  (1074;)  enjoining  the  married  priests  either  to 
quit  their  wives,  or  venounce  the  sacerdotal  order.  Ihe  whole 
cleray  murmure.l  against  ihe  unfeeling  rigour  of  this  decree, 
which  even  excited  tumult  and  insurrection  in  several  countries 
of  Germany ;  and  it  required  ail  the  firmness  of  Gregofv  and 
his  successors  to  abolish  clerical  marriages,  and  establish  the 
law  of  celibacy  throughout  the  Western  churches.*  In  thus 
dissolving  the  secular  ties  of  the  clergy,  it  was  far  from  the  in- 
tention of  Gregory  VII.  to  render  them  independent.  His  designs 
were  more  politic,  and  more  suitable  to  his  ambition.  He  wished 
to  make  the  clergy  eutirely  subservient  to  his  own  elevation,  and 
even  to  employ  them  as  an  instrument  to  humble  and  subdue 
the  power  of  the  princfis. 


J 


ent  on  the  emperors; 
lominetion  and  invest!* 
ight  to  interfere  in  the 

sovereigns,  was  of  the 
(ly,  who  had  committed 
er  part  of  their  domains 
o  divest  those  princes 
iefs,  was  .'i  fact  to  de- 
smpire.  The  bishops, 
spect  ot  an  imaginary 

ich  the  emperors  had 
lers  of  the  Pope.   They 

arms  which  the  latter 

union  vhich  connected 

orders  of  society,  and 

of  the  secular  authority, 

its  ;  a  custom  in  use  at 

as  it  still  is  in  the  Greek 

the  law  of  celibacy,  al- 

ustine,  had  been  adopted 

no  means  of  introducing 

le  Catholic  communion. 

ind  the  south  of  Europe 

he  priests  continued  to 

and  the  kingdoms  of  the 

d  Italy,  notwithstanding 

ianctioned  in  vain  by  a 

ler  the  clergy  completely 
necessary  to  break  this 
of  celibacy,  in  a  council 
narried  priests  either  to 
iotal  order.  The  whole 
g  rigour  of  this  decree, 
:tion  in  several  countries 
irmness  of  Gregory  and 
iages,  and  establish  the 
rn  churches.'  In  thus 
f,  it  was  far  from  the  in- 
ndependent.  His  designs 
is  ambition.  He  wished 
to  his  own  elevation,  and 
t  to  humble  and  subdue 


mioD  IT.    A.  D.  1074 — 1300. 


106 


The  path  had  already  bsen  opened  up  to  him  by  tha  FaUt 
Decretalt,  as  they  were  called,  forged  about  the  beginning  of  the 
ninth  century,  by  the  famous  impostor  Isidore,  who,  with  the 
view  of  diminishing  the  authority  of  the  metropolitans,  advanced 
in  these  letters,  which  he  attributed  to  the  early  bishops  of 
Rome,  a  principle  whose  main  object  was  to  extend  the  rights 
of  the  Romish  See,  and  to  vest  in  the  popes  a  jurisdiction  till 
then  unknown  in  the  church.  Several  Popes  before  Gregory 
VII.  had  already  availed  themselves  of  these  Faltie  Decretals;'^ 
and  they  had  even  been  admitted  as  true  into  different  collec- 
tions of  canons.  Gregory  did  not  content  himself  with  rigidly 
enforcing  th*^  principles  of  the  impostor  Isidore.  He  went  even 
farther ;  he  pretended  to  unite,  in  himself,  the  plenary  exercise 
both  of  the  ecclesiastical  and  episcopal  power  ;  leaving  nothing 
to  the  archbishops  and  bii^hops  but  the  simfle  title  of  his  lieu- 
tenants or  vicars.  He  coiripletely  undermined  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  metropolitans  and  bi.shops,  by  authorizing  in  nil  cases  an 
appeal  to  the  Court  of  Rome  ;  reserving  to  himself  exclusively 
the  cognizance  of  all  causes  termed  viajor — including  more  es- 

ftecially  the  privilege  of  juJging  and  deposing  of  bishops.  This 
alter  privilege  had  always  been  vested  in  the  provinckal  councils, 
who  exercised  it  under  the  authority,  and  v.'ith  the  consent  of 
the  secular  powers.  Gregory  abolished  this  usage ;  and  claimed 
for  himself  the  power  of  judging-  the  bishops,  either  in  person 
or  by  his  legates,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  Synodal  Assemblies. 
He  made  himself  master  of  these  assemblies,  and  even  arroga- 
ted the  exclusive  right  of  convocating  General  Councils. 

This  pontiff,  in  a  council  which  he  held  at  Rome  (1079,)  at 
length  prescribed  a  new  oath,  which  the  bishops  were  obliged 
to  take ;  the  main  object  of  which  was  not  merely  canonical 
obedience,  but  even  fealty  a^d  homage,  such  as  the  prelates,  as 
lieges,  vowed  to  their  sovereigns;  and  which  the  pontiff  claimed 
for  himself  alone,  bearing  that  they  should  aid  and  defend, 
against  the  whole  world,  his  new  supremacy,  and  what  he  called 
the  royal  rights  of  St.  Peter.  Although  various  sovereigns 
maintained  possession  of  the  homage  they  received  from  their 
bishops,  the  oath  imposed  by  Gregory  nevertheless  retained  its 
full  force ;  it  was  even  augmented  by  his  successors,  and  ex- 
tended t('  all  bishops  without  distinction,  in  spile  of  its  incon- 
sistency with  that  which  the  bishops  swore  to  their  princes. 

Another  very  eflectual  lueans  which  Gregory  VII.  made  use 
of  to  confirm  his  new  authority,  was  to  send,  more  frequently 
than  his  predecessors  had  done,  legates  into  the  different  states 
and  kingcbma  of  Christendom.  He  made  them  a  kind  of  gov- 
ernors of  provinces,  and  invested  them  with  the  most  ample 


-  ,;•! 


IM 


OBArnt  V. 


nowen.  These  legates  soon  obtained  a  knowledge  of  all  the 
Sairs  of  the  provinces  delegated  to  their  care ;  which  «ea  ly^ 
impaired  the  authority  of  the  metropolitans  and  provincial  coun- 
castas  well  as  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops.  A  clause  was 
alsd  inserted,  in  the  form  of  the  oath  imposed  on  the  bishops 
which  obliged  them  to  furnish  maintenance  and  ""PPOrt  >«' 
these  legatls ;  a  practice  which  subsequently  gave  place  to  fre- 
Quent  exactions  and  impositions  on  their  part. 

While  occupied  wiih  the  means  of  exlendmg  his  power  oyer 
the  clergy.  Gregory  did  not  let  slip  any  opportunity  of  making 
encroacSments  on  tie  authority  of  pmces  and  sovereigns,  wh  ch 
he  represented  as  subordinate  to  that  of  the  Church  and  the 
Pone.  As  supreme  head  of  the  Church,  he  claimed  a  right  of 
inspection  over  all  kings  and  their  governments.  He  deemed 
himself  authorized  to  address  admonitions  to  'hem,  as  to  the 

method  of  ruling  their  Wng^o'^^J  ^"^  t°  "il  lUtTn  tS 

account  of  their  conduct.  By  and  by,  he  presumed  to  listen  to 
the  complaints  of  subjects  against  their  princes,  and  claimed  the 
riffht  of  being  a  judge  or  arbiter  between  them.  In  this  capacity 
h!  acted  towarJs  fienry  IV.,  emperor  of  Germa«Xi  «;ho  ff" 
joyed  the  rights  of  sovereignty  over  Rome  and  the  Fope.  He 
iummoned  him  to  Rome  (1076,)  for  the  purpose  of  answenng 
before  the  synod  to  the  P-inc'Pa\  recusations  which  the  nobles 
of  Saxony,  engaged  in  disputes  with  that  prince,  had  referred  to 
the  Pope:  The  emperor,  burning  with  indignation,  and  hurried 
on  by  t^e  impetuosity  of  youth,  instantly  convoked  «» ««8«™Wv 
of  biihops  atVorms.  and  there  caused  the  pontiff  to  be  deposed. 

No  sooner  was  this  sentence  ?°»l«y«V\'^r^' '"'tliri^J 
presence  of  the  Pope  in  a  council  which  he  had  assembled,  than 
Gregory  ventured  on  a  step  till  then  quite  unheard  of.  He  im- 
mediately thundered  a  sentence  of  excommunication  and  depo- 
sition against  the  Emperor,  which  was  addressed  to  St.  Peter, 
and  couched  in  the  following  terms :—  ,  •  ,  .j-  ,  r,„™ 

"  In  the  name  of  Almighty  God,  I  suspend  and  interdict  from 
governing  the  kingdom  of  Germany  and  Italy,  Henry,  son  of 
the  emperor  Henry,  who,  with  a  haughtiness  unexamined.  Jas 
dared  to  rebel  against  thy  church.  I  absolve  all  Christians 
whatever  from  the  oath  wWh  they  have  taken,  or  8h«»ll  here- 
after  take,  to  him;  and  henceforth  none  shall  be  If/'n»"«d  todo 
hh^  homie  or  service  as  k-ng;  for  he  who  would  dwjbey  Je 
authority  of  thy  Church,  deserves  to  lose  the  dignity  with  whwh 
he  is  iivested.^  And  seeing  this  prince  has  "f-^J !«  ««J»>^ 
as  a  Christian,  and  has  not  returned  to  the  Lord  whom  he  l»th 
forsaken,  holding  communion  with  the  excommunicated,  and 
dmpuing  the  aSice  which  I  tender«i  him  for  the  safety  of  bu 


riBioD  nr.    a.  d.  1074 — 1300. 


m 


a  knowledge  of  «11  the 
leir  care ;  which  8T«»t'y^ 
tans  and  provincial  coun-"* 
bishops.  A  clause  was 
imposed  on  the  bishops, 
lenance  and  support  for 
uently  gave  place  to  fre- 
sir  part. 

xtending  his  power  oyer 
f  opportunity  of  making 
les  and  sovereigns,  which 
:  of  the  Church  and  the 
ch,  he  claimed  a  right  of 
irernments.     He  deemed 
itions  to  them,  as  to  the 
1  to  demand  of  them  an 
he  presumed  to  listen  to 
•  princes,  and  claimed  the 
n  them.     In  this  capacity 
or  of  Germany,  who  en- 
tomc  and  the  Pope.    He 
he  purpose  of  answering 
isations  which  the  nobles 
ml  prince,  had  referred  to 
h  indignation,  and  hurried 
tly  convoked  an  assembly 
the  pontiff  to  be  deposed, 
ed  to  Rome,  and  read  in 
h  he  had  assembled,  than 
[uite  unheard  of.     He  im* 
sommunication  and  depo- 
i.s  addressed  to  St.  Peter, 

luspend  and  interdict  from 
and  Italy,  Henry,  son  of 
ghtiness  unexampled,  Jias 
I  absolve  all  Uhristians 
have  taken,  or  shall  here- 
ne  shall  be  permitted  to  do 
he  who  would  disobey  the 
ose  the  dignity  with  which 
ince  has  refused  to  submit 
to  the  Lord  whom  he  hath 
the  excommunicated,  and 
d  him  for  the  safety  of  bit 


soul,  I  load  him  with  curses  in  thy  name,  to  the  end  that  peo- 
ple may  know,  even  by  experience,  that  thou  art  Peter,  and  that 
on  this  rock  the  Son  of  the  living  God  has  built  his  church ; 
and  that  the  gates  of  hell  shall  never  prevail  against  it." 

This  measure,  which  seemed  at  first  to  have  been  merely  the 
effect  of  the  pontiff's  impetuosity,  soon  discovered  of  what  im- 
portance it  was  for  him  to  persevere,  and  what  advantage  he 
might  derive  from  it.     In  humbling  the  emperor,  the  most  pow- 
erful monarch  in  Europe,  he  might  hope  that  all  the  other 
sovereigns  would  bend  before  him.     He  omitted  nothing,  there- 
fore, that  might  serve  to  justify  his  conduct,  and  endeavoured 
to  prove,  by  sophistries,  that  if  he  had  authority  to  excommuni- 
cate the  emperor,  he  might  likewise  deprive  him  of  his  dignity ; 
and  that  the  right  to  release  subjects  from  their  oath  of  allegi- 
ance was  an  emanation  and  a  natural  consequence  of  the  power 
of  the  Keys.     The  same  equivocal  interpretation  he  aflerwards 
made  use  of  in  a  sentence  which  he  published  against  the  same 
prince  (1080,)  and  which  he  addressed  to  the  Apostles  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul,  in  these  terms  :  "  You",  fathers  and  princes  of  the 
apostles,  hereby  make  known  to  the  whole  world,  that  if  you 
can  bind  and  unbind  in  heaven,  you  can  much  more,  on  earth, 
take  from  all  men  empires,  kingdoms,  principalities,  dutchies, 
marquisates,  counties,  and  possessions,  of  whatsoever  nature 
they  may  be.     You  have  often  deprived  the  unworthy  of  patri- 
archates, primacies,  archbishoprics,  and  bishoprics,  to  give  them 
to  persons  truly  religious.    Hence,  if  you  preside  over  spiritual 
aflairs,  does  not  your  jurisdiction  extend  a  fortiori  to  temporal 
and  secular  dignities?  and  if  you  judge  the  angels  who  rule 
over  princes  and  potentates,  even  the  haughtiest,  will  you  not 
also  judge  their  slaves  ?  Let  then  the  kings  and  princes  of  the 
earth  learn  how  great  and  irresistible  is  your  power !  Let  them 
tremble  to  contemn  the  commands  of  your  church !  And  do  you, 
blessed  Peter,  and  blessed  Paul,  exercise,  from  this  time  forward, 
your  judgment  on  Henry,  that  the  whole  earth  may  know  that 
he  has  been  humbled,  not  by  any  human  contingencies,  but  solely 
by  your  power."    Until  that  time,  the  emperors  had  exercised 
the  right  of  confirming  the  Popes,  and  even  of  deposing  them, 
should  there  be  occasion  ;  but,  by  a  strange  reverse  of  preroga- 
tives, the  popes  now  arrogated  to  themselves  the  confirmation  of 
the  emperors,  and  even  usurped  the  right  of  dethroning  them. 

However  irresalar  this  step  of  the  pontiff  might  be,  it  did  not 
fail  to  produce  &e  intended  effect.  In  an  assembly  of  the  Im- 
pend Statea,  held  at  Tribur  (1076,)  the  emperor  could  only 
obtain  their  consent  to  postpone  their  proceeding  to  a  new 
election,  and  that  on  the  express  condiuon  of  his  sabmitting 


108 


CBArntt  V. 


himself  lo  the  judgment  of  the  Pope,  and  bemg  thsoWed  imme- 
diately  from  the  excommunication  he  had  mcurred.  Inconse- 
quence  of  this  decision  of  the  States,  Henry  crossed  the  Alps 
in  the  middle  of  winter,  to  ohtain  reconciliation  with  the  Fope, 
who  then  resided  with  the  famous  Countess  Matilda,  at  her 
Castle  of  Canossa,  in  the  Modenese  territory.  Absolution  was 
not  granted  him,  however,  except  under  condilions  the  most  hu- 
miliating. He  was  compelled  to  do  penance  in  an  outer  court 
of  the  castle,  in  a  woollen  shirt  and  barefooted,  for  three  suc- 
cessive days,  and  afterwards  to  sign  whatever  terms  the  pontifl 
chose  to  pr"  scribe.  This  extraordinary  spectacle  must  have 
spread  conste.-nation  among  the  sovereigns  of  Europe,  and 
made  them  tremble  at  the  censures  of  the  Church. 

After  this,  Gregory  VII.  exerted  his  utmost  influence  to  en- 
SBse  all  sovereigns,  without  distinction,  to  acknowledge  them- 
selves his  vassals  apd  tributaries.     "  Let  not  the  emperor 
imagine,"  says  he,  in  a  letter  which  he  wrote  to  the  German 
nation,  "  Uiat  the  church  is  subject  to  him  as  a  slave,  but  let  him 
know  that  she  is  set  over  him  as  a  sovereign."    From  that  time 
the  pontiff  regarded  the  empire  as  a  fief  of  his  church  ;. and 
afterwards  when  setting  up  a  rival  emperor  to  Henry  IV.,  in 
the  person  of  Hermann  of  Luxemburg,  he  exacted  from  him  a 
formal  oath  of  vassalage.     Gregory  pursued  the  same  conduct 
in  regard  to  the  other  sovereigns  of  Europe. 'Boleslaus  II., 
King  of  Poland,  having  killed  Stanislaus  Bishop  of  Cracow, 
who  had  ventured  to  excommunicate  him,  the  j^ontiff  took  oc- 
casion from  this  to  depose  that  prince;  releMing  all  his  sutj- 
iects  from  their  oath  of  fidelity,  and  even  prohibiting  the  Polish 
bishops  henceforth  to  crown  any  king  without  the  express  con- 
sent of  the  Pope.  j  j      .l- 

This  aspiring  pontiflf  stuck  at  nothing ;  he  regarded  nothing, 
provided  he  could  obtain  his  object.     However  contrary  the 
customs  of  former  times  were  to  his  pretensions,  he  quoted 
them  as  examples  of  authority,  and  with  a  boldness  capable  ot 
imposing  any  thing  on  weak  and  ignorant  minds.     It  was  thus 
that,  in  order  to  oblige  the  French  nation  to  pay  him  the  tax  of 
one  penny  each  house,  he  alleged  the  example  of  Charlemagne, 
and  pretended  that  that  prince  had  not  merely  paid  this  tribute, 
but  even  granted  Saxony  as  a  fief  to  St.  Peter ;  as  he  had  con- 
quered it  with  the  assistance  of  that  apostle.    In  writing  to 
Iliilip  I.  of  France,  he  expressed  himself  in  these  terms : 
"  Stme  to  please  St.  Peter,  who  has  thykingdom  as  well  as 
thy  soul  in  his  power ;  and  who  can  bind  thee,  and  abMlve  in 
Imtven  as  well  as  on  «arth."  And  in  a  letter  which  he  addressed 
tt  Ae  Princes  of  Spain,  he  attempted  to  persuade  them,  that  the 


1  being  tbsolved  imme* 
ad  incurred.  Inconse- 
lenry  crossed  the  Alps 
:iliation  wilh  the  Pope, 
unless  Matilda,  at  her 
itory.  Absolution  was 
conditions  the  most  hu- 
lance  in  an  outer  court 
refooted,  for  three  suc- 
atever  terms  the  pontiff 
y  spectacle  must  have 
reigns  of  Europe,  and 
he  Church. 

utmost  influence  to  en* 
,,  to  acknowledge  them- 
"  Let  not  the  emperor 
e  wrote  to  the  German 
im  as  a  slave,  but  let  him 
reign."  From  that  time 
fief  of  his  church  ;  and 
(iperor  to  Henry  IV.,  in 
,  he  exacted  from  him  a 
irsued  the  same  conduct 
Europe.  *  Boleslaus  11., 
laus  Bishop  of  Cracow, 
lim,  the  pontiff  took  oc- 
e ;  releasing  all  his  sub- 
ren  prohibiting  the  Polish 
without  the  express  con- 

ng ;  he  regarded  nothing, 
,  However  contrary  the 
s  pretensions,  he  quoted 
ith  a  boldness  capable  of 
rant  minds.  It  was  thus 
lion  to  pay  him  the  tax  of 
example  of  Charlemagne, 
t  merely  paid  this  tribute, 
St.  Peter ;  as  he  had  con* 
t  apostle.  In  writing  to 
himself  in  these  terms : 
I  thy.  kingdom  as  well  as 
bind  thee,  and  abeolve  in 
I  letter  which  he  addreseed 
to  penuade  them,  that  the 


riBioD  IT.    4>  D.  1074 — 1300 

ktegilom  of  Spain,  being  originally  the  property  of  die  Holy 
See,  thev  could  not  exonerate  themselves  from  paying  him  a 
tax  on  all  the  lands  they  had  conquered  from  the  Infidels. 

He  affirmed  to  Solomon,  King  of  Hungary,  that  Stephen  L, 
on  receiving  his  crown  at  the  hands  of  Pope  Silvester  IL,  had 
surrendered  his  kingdom  as  free  property  to  the  Holy  See ;  and 
that,  in  virtue  of  this  donation,  his  kingdom  was  to  be  considered 
as  a  part  of  the  domain  of  the  church.  He  wrote  in  exactly  the 
same  style  to  Qeysa  his  immediate  successor.  In  one  of  his 
letters  to  Sueno,  King  of  Denmark,  he  enjoins  him  to  deliver 
up  his  kingdom  to  the  power  of  the  Romish  See.  He  reftiaed 
(1076,)  to  grant  the  royal  dignity  to  Demetrius  Swinimir,  Duke 
of  Croatia  and  Dalmatia,  except  on  the  express  condition,  that 
he  should  do  him  homage  for  his  kingdom,  and  engage  to  pay 
the  Pope  an  annual  tribute  of  two  hundred  ofolden  pieces  of  By- 
zantium. This  pontiffhad  the  art  of  disguising  his  ambition  as 
dexterously,  under  the  mask  of  justice  and  piety,  that  he  pe> 
vailed  with  various  other  sovereignr  to  acknowledge  themsMves 
his  vassals.  Bertrand,  Count  of  Provence,  transferred  to  him 
his  fealty  and  homage,  to  the  prejudice  of  those  feudal  obliga- 
tions he  owed  to  the  Empire.  Several  princes  of  Italy  and  Gwr- 
many,  influenced  by  artifice  or  intimidation,  abandoned  the 
emperor,  and  put  themselves  under  submission  to  the  P<^. 
His  eflbrts  were  not  equally  successful  with  William  the  Con- 
queror, King  of  England,  whom  he  had  politely  invited  by  letter, 
to  do  him  homage  for  his  kingdom,  afler  the  manner  of  his  nr^al 
predecessors.  That  prince,  too  wise  to  be  duped  by  papal  mi^^ 
position,  replied,  that  he  was  not  in  a  humour  to  perform  hom^[e 
which  he  had  never  promised,  and  which  he  was  not  aware  had 
ever  been  performed  by  any  of  his  predecessors. 

The  successors  of  Gregory  VII.,  followed  in  the  path  he  had 
opened  up ;  giving  their  utmost  support  to  all  his  maxims  and  pre- 
tensions. In  consequence,  a  very  great  number  of  the  prince* 
of  Christendom,  some  intimidated  by  the  thuoders  of  ecclesias- 
tical anathemas,  others  with  a  view  to  secure  for  themselves 
the  protection  of  the  Holy  See,  acknowledged  these  usurped 

S>wers  of  the  Popes.  The  Kings  of  Portugal,  Arragon,  Enghmd, 
Gotland,  Sardinia,  the  two  Sicilies,  and  several  others,  became, 
in  course  of  time,  vassals  and  tributaries  to  the  Papal  See;  and 
there  is  not  a  doubt,  that  the  universal  monarchy,  the  schera* 
of  which  Gregory  VII.  had  conceived,  would  have  been  com- 
pletely established,  if  some  of  bis  successors  had  been  endowei 
with  his  vast  amUdon,  and  his  superior  geiuas. 

In  every  other  reject,  cirevmstanees  were  such  as  to  hasIM 
and  facilitate  the  progress  of  this  new  pontifical  tapremacy.  H"- 

VOL.  I.  10 


had  commew«d  in  a  btrterous  a«.  when  the  whole  of  4e 
wiSTworld  was  covered  with  the  darkneee  of  ignorance . 
InrXniSankind  knew  neither  the  Just  ngfht.  of  •ovcre.gnty. 
!«r  tK«^und»  which  reason  and  equity  should  have  set  to  the 

monarchs  that  put  them  in  practice.  An  "t"'««^"  "Km 
♦!««  the  inseoarable  companion  of  ignorance,  held  all  Europe 
•  •  l?rjr„n^[he  Pones  were  reverenced  with  a  venerauon 
',;imGftat  whKC  onl  V  to  the  Deity ;  and  the  whote 
-IJld  trembled  at  the  utterance  of  the  single  word  Excommw 
SitT  Kings  were  not  sufficiently  powerful  to  oppose  any 
rSul  Sn^e  to  the  encroachments  of  Rome  ;  the.  J^^ 
Sority  was  curtailed  and  counteracted  by  that  of  their  vassals, 
who  LSed  with  eagerness  every  occasion  which  the  Popes 
Sered  lhem,To  aggrfndi.e  their  oin  prerogatives  at  the  expense 

^'itr^^^r  oTaerany,  who  was  alone  aWe^o  co"^--!! 

5S^anr?t;remXr8.and  excited  intestine  wars  agamst  him 
rh^tSUvenwe^so^^^^^^^^^ 

Sri  ^wS  '  the  Empi.rSii  the^P^cy,  under  the  reign  of 
H^y  IV  ,««i  which  Jgitated  both  dermany  and    taly  to  a 

Other  to  pieces  with  inconceivable  furv.  ».^:„.ted  the 

Henrv  V    son  and  successor  of  Henry  IV.,  terminatea  tne 

pa^dTdiU^^^^^  the  invesUtures  f  f  VwS.^  (Ul^'S 
S«  thB  Concordat  which  he  concluded  at  Worms  (ll-a)  witn 
pin? cSrfi  he  Mnounc^l  the  ceremony  of  the  ring  and 
Sw^Sd  wanting  to  the  churches  freefiberty  of  elecUpn, 
bJ^vU^JtS  wLim^lf.  exce,,t  the  Prijjl«««;  "J^SI 
SnS.ioner.to  the  election.,  and  fP''«'°:^^J^l,''SM, 

Z;T:^^S^^-^^^'  bishV  with  the  empe- 


1 


ntno  IT.    A.  D.  1074—1300. 


Ill 


len  the  whole  of  the 
irkiMM  of  ignorance; 

rights  of  lovereignty, 
^hould  have  aet  to  the 
>f  Rome  was  then  the 
ind  the  Popes  the  only 
1  extravagant  supersti- 
ance,  held  all  Europe 
;ed  with  a  veneration 

Deity ;  and  the  whole 
ingle  word  Excommu- 
lowerful  to  oppose  any 
Us  of  Rome  ;  their  au- 
y  that  of  their  vassals, 
sion  which  the  Popes 
rogatives  at  the  expense 

lone  able  to  countervail 
var  with  his  grand  vas- 
to  repress ;  while  thev, 
e,  and  consulting  only 
ir,  blindly  seconded  the 
ror,  however,  did  all  in 
torrent  of  ecclesiastical 
)ry  became  so  extrava- 
h  spiritual  weapons,  he 
stine  wars  against  him ; 
to  aron  the  sons  againat 
in  of  the  contests  which 
pacy,  under  the  reign  of 
rermany  and  Italy  for  a 
re  birth,  also,  to  the  two 
nes,  die  former  Imperial, 
sourse  of  time  tore  each 

• 

inry  IV.,  terminated  the 
the  ring  and  the  crosier, 
d  at  Worms  (11^)  with 
nemony  of  the  ring  and 
»s  free  uberty  of  election, 
the  privilege  of  sending 
ring  to  the  newly  elected 
are  of  the  legalian  t'^^* 
e  ring  uid  crosier.  The 
I  bishops  with  the  eoipe* 


Ton,  were  still  preserved  by  this  transaction,  contrary  to  the  iii> 
tenlions  of  Gregory  VII. ;  bat  the  emperors  being  obliged  to 
approve  of  the  persons  whom  the  Church  should  hereaAer  pr*- 
sent,  lost  their  chief  influence  in  the  elections,  and  were  no 
loitffer  entitled,  as  formerly,  to  grant  or  refuse  investiture. 

These  broils  with  the  court  of  Rome,  the  check  which  they 
gave  to  the  Imperial  authority,  joined  to  the  increasing  abuses 
of  the  feudal  system,  afforded  the  princes  and  states  of  the  Em- 

Sire  the  means  of  usurping  the  heritable  succession  of  their 
utchies,  counties,  and  fiefs ;  and  of  laying  the  foundations  of  a 
new  power,  which  they  afterwards  exercised  under  the  name  of 
territorial  superiority.  Frederic  11.,  compelled  by  the  pretisure 
of  events,  was  the  first  emperor  that  sanctioned  the  territorial 
rights  of  the  states  by  charters,  which  he  delivered  to  several 
princes,  secular  and  ecclesiastic,  in  the  years  1220  and  1338. 
The  Imperial  dignity  thus  lost  its  splendour  with  the  power  of 
the  emperors  ;  and  the  constitution  of  the  Empire  was  totally 
changed.  That  vast  monarchy  degenerated  by  degrees  into  a 
kind  of  federal  system ;  and  the  Emperor,  in  course  of  time, 
became  only  the  common  chief,  and  superior  over  the  numerous 
vassals  of  which  that  association  was  composed.  The  extra- 
ordinary  efforts  made  by  the  Emperors  Frederic  I.  and  II.  of  the 
house  of  Hohenstaufen,*  to  re-establish  the  tottering  throne  of 
the  empire,  ended  in  nothing;  and  that  House,  one  of  the  most 
powerful  in  Europe,  was  deprived  of  all  its  crowns,  and  perae- 
cuted  even  to  the  scaffold. 

The  empire  thus  fell  into  gradual  decay,  while  the  pontifical 
power,  rising  on  its  ruins,  gained,  day  by  day,  new  accessiona 
of  strength.  The  successors  of  Gregory  VII.  omitted  nothing 
that  policy  could  suggest  to  them,  in  order  to  humble  more  and 
more  the  dignity  of  die  Emperors,  and  to  bring  them  into  a  state 
of  absolute  dependence,  by  arrogating  to  themselves  the  express 
right  of  confirming,  and  even  of  deposing  them  ;*  and  com- 
pelling them  to  acknowledge  their  feudal  superiority.  Bcdng 
thus  no  longer  obliged  to  submit  their  election  to  the  arbitration 
of  the  Imperial  court,  the  ambitious  pontiffs  soon  aspired  to 
absolute  sovereignty. 

The  custom  of  dating  their  acts,  and  coining  their  money 
with  the  stamp  and  name  of  the  emperor,  disappeared  af^ 
the  time  of  Gregory  VII. ;  and  the  authority  which  the  empa- 
ron  had  exercised  at  Rome,  ceased  entiraly  with  ^e  loss  of  the 
prafeeture  or  government  of  that  ci^r  >  which  Pope  Innocent  III. 
took  into  hit  own  hands  (1196,)  obliging  the  prefiKt  of  Rome 
to  swear  die  usual  oath  of  homage  to  the  ApoatoUc  See,  which 
that  magistrate  owed  to  the  emperor,  firom  wh«wi  he  receivad' 


I 


AavM&etoM.  Htoce  U  happened,  thiitUifchiefc  of  the  Em- 
SfoSiSitocomproini«i  with  .power  whwhthe^hi^JeMned 
ffXSThld  no  longer  any  difficulty  in  recogniiing  the  enure 
^dependence  of  the  Popes;  even  formdly  renouncing  the 
SIKr  high  iovereignty  which  iheur  predecewor.  had  enjoyed, 
SSTonW  ofer  Bon>e,l)ut  over  the  Eccleeiwitical  ^States.  The 
diss  of  the  church  were  likewiee  con.,deraWy  mcreaaed 
WthracQuUiUons  which  Innocent  III.  made  of  ihe  March 
3  aSsmS  and  the  dutchy  of  Spoleio ;  as  well  as  by  the  per- 

the  BiSr*  Frederic  II.  ceded  to  Hononus  W.  (1220.)  and 
iSkkW  successors  in  the  Apostolic  chair  formed  into  the  pro- 
S?£own  by  the  name  of  the  Patrimony  of  St.  Peter. 

One  rf  the  grand  means  which  the  Popes  employed  for  the 
•imneementof  their  new  authority,  was  the  ™"lt'P>'«=«»"«»  "^ 
BeESus  Orders,  and  the  way  in  which  they  took  «="«'«•"»»■ 
Mthese  coroorktions.     Before  the  time  of  Gregory  VII..  the 
SwoZ  known  in  the  West  was  that  of  the  Bened.cl.nes. 
JSdi  into  several  families  or  congregat  ons      The  rule  of  St. 
Bewdict,  prescribed  at  the  Council  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (817)  to 
STonks^within  the  empire  of  the  F""^,^' «'"  ^Basif  w^ 
allowed  by  the  Bomish  Church ;  just  as  that  of  St.  Basil  was. 
«3  sU^l  is.  the  only  one  practised  in  the  East  by  the  Greek 
Ctoih.     The  first  of  these  newly  invented  orders  was  that  of 
oSSm^nt  in  Limosin  (1073,)  authorized  by  P«>P«  G'^g^y  ^I  . 
xETwas  followed,  in  the  same  century,  by  the  order  of  Char- 
iSl.  «d  that  of  St.  Antony.'     The  Mendicant  orders  took 
Slirrise  under  Innocent  III.,  near  the  e«d  of  the  twelfth,  and 
btSnJig  of  Se  thirteenth  century.    Their  number  increased 
SKS  tie  so  prodigiously,  that,  in  1274.  they  could  reckon 
?!._LiuthVnn  orders     The  complaints  which  were  raised  on  this 
SStZ  Ju  Pu  of  Christe^ndom.  obliged  Pope  Gregory  to 
SS  iem.  at  the^Council  of  Lyons,  to  four  orders,  viz.  the 
£^!t.  orSt  WUliam  or  AugusUnes.  Carmelites,  the  Minor 
STiiJcilcan  fri«.Zd  the  lre«:hing  or  Dominican  friars. 
TTie  pSSirjBrcSving  that  they  might  convert  the  monastic 
«£«  Md Tore  parficularly  the  mendicants,  into  a  powerful 
SjS  fo^-SeTgtKlg  the^  own  authority,  and  k^p.^  the 
^S^  clenrv  in  subjection,  granted  by  degrees  to  these  frater- 
STimSiS.  2d  exemptions  tending  to  withdraw   hem 
SjT'JT-SSion  of  the  Lhops.  ^  to  e»!»«P»2J^SS 
ftan  evwT  other  authoii'y.  except  that  of  their  Heads,  and  th« 
SL^toT  evS  conf/rUTthtm  various. privileges,  such 

Z  hSZ  SeWrtlilSy  me».  to  augment  their  ciedit  and  tbeu 


ntioD  IV.    A.  D.  lOVi— 1900. 


Itt 


;  Um  ehieb  of  tke  Em* 
which  thej  had  iMTMd 
I  recogniaing  the  entire 
mally  lenouncinp;  the 
KleceMors  had  enjoyed, 
niaatical  Statea.    The 
considerahly  increased 
I.  made  of  the  March 
as  well  as  by  the  per- 
tnteu  Matilda^  which 
Miorius  III.  (1220.)  and 
air  formed  into  the  pro- 
wmy  of  St.  Peter. 
Popes  employed  for  ihe 
as  the  multiplication  of 
I  they  took  care  to  man- 
ne  of  Gregory  VII.,  the 
tat  of  the  Benedictines, 
ations.     The  rule  of  St. 
Aix-la-Chapelle  (817)  to 
ranks,  was  the  onlv  one 
u  that  of  St.  Basil  was, 
the  East  by  the  Greek 
ented  orders  was  that  of 
id  by  Pope  Gregory  VII. 
y,  by  the  order  of  Char- 
Mendicant  orders  took 
e  end  of  the  twelfth,  and 
Their  number  increased 
1 1274,  they  could  reckon 
which  were  raised  on  this 
obliged  Pope  Gregory  to 
s,  to  four  orders,  viz.  the 
it,  Carmelites,  the  Minor 
ing  or  Dominican  friars. 
;ht  convert  the  monastic 
ndicants,  into  a  powerful 
uthority,  and  keeping  the 
)y  degrees  to  these  frater- 
snding  to  withdraw  them 
and  to  emancipate  them 
tt  of  their  Heads,  and  the 
tn  various  privilegas.  such 
d  iaatructiog  the  young; 
rment  tkeir  credit  and  their 


iniamee.    The  eonaeqoenee  waa,  that  tha  monks  wmv  ft** 


<^u«ntl^  employed  by  the  Pope*  in  quality  of  legilee  uid  ini*> 
sranariea ;  thev  were  feared  and  respected  by  aeTefelns,  ahi* 
gularly  revered  by  the  people,  and  let  slip  no  occasion  ofezalting 
a  power  to  which  alone  they  owed  their  promotion,  their  re* 
apectability,  and  all  the  advantages  they  enjoyed. 

Of  all  the  successors  of  Gregory  VIL,  he  wno  resembled  him 
moat  in  the  auperiority  of  his  geniua,  and  the  extent  of  hia 
knowledge,  was  Innocent  III.,  who  waa  of  the  family  of  the 
Counts  of  Segni,  and  elevated  to  the  pontificate  a|  the  aoe  of 
37.  He  was  as  ambitious  as  that  pontiff,  and  eqnailv  nrtile 
in  resources ;  and  he  even  surpassed  him  in  the  holmess  tit 
his  plans,  and  the  success  of  his  enterprises.  Innocent  an* 
nounced  himself  as  the  succeuor  of  St.  Peter,  nt  up  ijf  Ooi 
to  govern  not  only  the  Church,  but  th*  whole  world.  IX  waS 
this  Pope  who  first  made  use  of  the  famous  comparison  aboat 
the  sun  and  the  moon  :  Am  God,  says  he,  hat  placed  turn  great 
lumiTuiries  in  the  firmament,  the  one  to  rule  the  day,  aiul  tkt 
other  to  give  light  by  nig^,  lo  hat  he  established  two  grand 
powers,  the  porUifical  and  the  royal;  and  as  the  moon  receivet 
her  light  from  the  sun,  so  does  royalty  borrow  its  tptendmn 
from  the  Papal  authority. 

Not  content  to  exercise  the  legislative  power  as  he  pleased, 
bv  means  of  the  numerous  decretals  which  he  dispersed  over 
all  Christendom,  this  pontiff  was  ^e  first  that  arrogated  to  him* 
self  the  prerogative  of  dispensing  with  the  laws  themselves, 
in  virtue  of  what  he  termed  the  plenitude  of  his  power.  It  is 
to  him  also  that  the  origin  of  the  Inquisition  is  ascribed,  that 
terrible  tribunal  which  afterwards  became  the  firmest  prop  of 
sacerdotal  despotism ;  but  what  is  of  more  importance  io  re- 
mark, is,  that  he  laid  the  foundations  of  that  exorbitant  power, 
which  his  successors  have  since  exercised  in  collating  or  pre* 
senting  to  ecclesiastical  dignities  and  benefices. 

The  secular  princes  having  been  deprived  of  their  rights  of 
nomination  and  confirmation,  by  the  decrees  of  Gregory  VII. 
and  his  successors,  the  privilege  of  electing  bishops  was  re- 
stored to  the  clergy  and  congregation  of  each  church,  and  to 
the  chapters  of  convents ;  the  confirmation  of  the  elected  pre* 
lates  belonged  to  their  immediate  superiors ;  and  collation  to 
the  other  ecclesiastical  benefices  vias  reserved  for  the  bishope 
and  ordinaries.  All  these  regulations  were  changed  towMoS 
the  end  of  the  twelfth  century.  The  canons  of  cathedral 
churches,  authorized  by  the  Court  of  Rome,  claimed  to  them- 
selves the  right  of  election,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  clergy  an4 
the  people ;  while  the  Popes,  gradaally  interfering  with  elec- 


■MMHMi 


HI  tmATtn  V. 

flf  that  iurixiiction  u  often  as  he  may  judge  proper. 

t£  oSSe  of  a  conjunct  auihorlty,  funii.hed  a  very  plau- 
aiWe  OfiSxf  ffthe  Pope,  to  interfere  In  collation  to  benefice.. 
TW.'cXi>n"  ««ordirg  to  the  canon  »«*'^'nf  ."'^jj  "» 
ir  iuriadiction  of  bLhops,  it  seemed  natural  that  the  rope, 
who  wncSin  the  juriUiction.  .hould  al.o  concur  .n  tjte 
MiXTsTriv^d  from\t.  namely,  induction  or  colat.on  to  be- 
prwieges  H«  "  concurrence,  therefore,  Innocent  111. 

«t:.'dad  tiXu,^^^^^^^^  the  first  pontiff  that  made 

SrST    He  exercised  that  right.  ^-P^-^'^'ly^^f.lfS^lV; 

S2.TR«  «  iSL,  which  he  dispersed  over  the  different 

'^irth.  Sghi'^^^^^^^^^^^^  were  derived  the  provisional 

SSui  letters  granting  promise  of  church  livings  before  they 
SSieva^l.^   TheVopes  not  having  legates  every  where, 
iSHrisWr  besides,  to  treat  the  bishops  with  some  respect, 
JSan  bv  aSdressing  to  them  letters  of  recommendation  m  fa- 
JS^of  WeT»on»  for  whom  they  were  anxious  to  procure 
Wefices.    These  letters  becoming  too  frequent  and  importu- 
SSs  the  bishop,  ventured  to  refuse  their  compliance  ;  on  which 
ffpZsbegJn  to  change  their  recommendations  into  orders 
„r^-tP«  •  and  aoDointed  commissioners  to  enforce  their 
2ac«Uon  bV  means^S?  ecclesiastical  censures.     These  man- 
SSs  were  sue™  eded  by  the  GrAce,  Expectatives,  which,  pro- 
S2S  riak  ng  we,e  nothing  else  than  mandates  issued  for  be- 
SSeJ^hosf  titulars  or  incumbents  were  yet  alive.     Lastly 

«f  Rome  This  was  introduced  by  Pope  Clement  IV .  in 
M^Torder  ti  exclude  for  ever  the  bishops  from  Uie  right  of 
Sncirrence  and  prevention  in  benefices  of  that  kind. 


I 


7BBI0D  lY.     A.  D.  1074—1300. 


116 


p  th«  nomination  and 

iMi.    The  principl*  of 

Use  decMtaU ;  tecord* 

Bn  emnnntoi  from  tht 

^ouree.    It  is  from  tht 

that  portion  of  authori- 

of  wnich  he  does  not 

ting  it  to  them;  but  is 

th  them  in  the  exercise 

udge  proper. 

furnished  a  very  plan* 

.  collation  to  benefices. 

law,  being  essential  to 

natural  that  the  Pope, 

uld  also  concur  in  tne 

ction  or  collation  to  be- 

,  therefore,  Innocent  III. 

le  first  pontiff  that  made 

pecially  with  regard  to 

int  by  the  death  of  their 

me;  in  which  cases  it 

of  the  bishops.     In  the 

in  remote  dioceses,  by 

persed  over  the  different 

derived  the  proviiional 
,  (reversionary  granU  or 
urch  livings  before  they 
ing  legates  every  where,, 
tops  with  some  respect, 
f  recommendation  in  fa- 
were  anxious  to  procure 

0  frequent  and  importu- 
3ir  compliance  ;  on  which 
fnmendations  into  orders 
isioners  to  enforce  their 

censures.  These  man- 
iixpectativet,  which,  pro- 

1  mandates  issued  for  be- 
were  yet  alive.     Lastly 

re  distinguished  into  ge- 
reservation  was  that  of 
onbents  dying  at  the  Court 
y  Pope  Clement  IV.  in 
bishops  from  the  right  of 
es  of  that  kind. 


This  first  raaerfation  wu  the  foreronnor  of  MTtral  othon, 
•ueh  aa  the  reaervatioo  of  all  eadiedral  ehurchet,  abbeyi,  and 
priories ;  at  also  of  the  highest  dignities  in  cathedral  and  colle* 
ffiate  churchei ;  and  of  all  collective  beneficea,  becoming  vacant 
during  eight  months  in  the  year,  called  th«  Pop$'i  manthi,  so 
that  only  four  months  remained  for  the  ordinary  collators ;  and 
these  too,  encroached  upon  by  mandates,  ezpectatives,  and  re- 
servations. The  Popes  having  thus  seixed  the  nomination  to 
episcopal  dignities,  it  followed,  hy  a  simple  and  natural  process, 
that  the  eenn/brmation  of  all  prelates,  without  distinction,  was  in 
like  manner  reserved  for  them.  It  would  have  even  been  reck- 
oned a  breach  of  decorum  to  address  an  archbishop,  demanding 
from  him  the  confirmation  of  a  bishop  nominated  by  the  Pope ; 
so  that  this  point  of  common  right,  which  vested  the  confirma- 
tion of  every  prelate  in  his  immediate  superior,  was  also  anni- 
hilated ;  and  the  Romish  See  was  at  length  acknowledged  over 
the  whole  Western  world,  as  the  only  source  of  all  jurisdiction, 
and  all  ecclesiastical  power. 

An  extraordinary  event,  the  ofTspring  of  that  superstitious  age, 
served  still  more  to  increase  the  power  of  the  Popes ;  and  that 
was  the  Crusades,  which  the  nations  of  Europe  undertook,  at 
their  request  and  by  their  orders,  for  the  conquest  of  Palestine 
or  the  Holy  Land.  These  expeditions,  known  by  the  name  of 
Holy  Wars,  because  religion  was  made  the  pretext  or  occasion 
of  them,  require  a  somewhat  pal-ticular  detail,  not  merely  of  the 
circumstances  that  accompanied  them,  but  also  of  the  changes 
which  they  introduced  into  the  moral  and  political  condition  of 
society.  Pilgrimages  to  Jerusalem,  which  were  in  use  from 
the  earliest  ages  of  Christianity,  had  become  very  frequent  about 
the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century.  The  opmion  which  then 
very  generally  prevailed,  that  the  end  of  the  world  was  at  hand, 
induced  vast  numbers  of  Christians  to  sell  their  possessions  in 
Europe,  in  order  that  they  might  set  out  for  the  Holy  Land, 
there  to  await  the  coming  of  the  Lord.  So  long  as  the  Arabs 
were  masters  of  Palestine,  they  protected  these  pilgrimages, 
from  which  they  derived  no  small  emoluments.  But  when  the 
Seljukian  Turks,  a  barbarous  and  ferocious  people,  had  con- 
quered that  country  (1075)  under  the  Caliphs  of  Egypt,  the  pil- 
grims saw  themselves  exposed  to  every  kind  of  insult  and  op- 
pression.^ The  lamentable  accounts  which  they  gave  of  these 
outrages  on  their  return  to  Europe,  excited  the  general  indigna- 
tion, and  gave  birth  to  the  romantic  notion  of  expelling  these 
Infidels  from  the  Holy  Land. 

Gregory  VII.  was  the  projector  of  this  grand  scheme.  He 
addressed  circular  letters  to  all  the  sovereigns  of  Europe,  and 


lli  OBAfTIt  T.      -^-  — 

inTitml  tlMin  to  mdi*  •  |«>t»l  cnii«dU  ilWMt  Ae  TuAy. 
MMntime,  howew,  mow  DNMinff  initwtto,  tad  hfa  qurrtU 
with  tbo  Emperor  Henry  IV^,  obliged  him  to  defcr  the  proieetwl 
•nierpriM ;  but  hi*  »ttention  was  eoon  recalled  to  it  by  the  re- 
preeentation  of  a  pilgrim,  called  Peter  the  Hermit,  a  natiw  of 
Amient  in  Picardy.    Fumithed  with  letteh  from  the  Patriarch 
of  Jerusalem  to  the  Pope  and  the  princee  of  the  West,  this 
ardent  fsnatie  trayer»ed  the  whole  of  Italy,  France,  and  Germa- 
ny ;  preaching  every  where,  and  repreaenting.  in  the  liTehett 
coloun,  the  profanation  of  the  sacred  placee,  and  the  mi«erable 
condition  of  the  Christians  and  poor  pilgrim*  in  the  Holy  Land. 
It  proved  no  difficult  task  for  him  to  impart  to  othera  the  fanati- 
ciam  with  which  he  was  himself  animated.    His  nal  was  pow- 
erfully seconded  by  Pope  Urban  II.,  who  repaired  in  person  to 
France,  where  he  convoked  the  council  of  Clermont  (1096,)  and 
pronounced,  in  fuU  assembly,  a  pathetic  harangue,  at  the  close 
of  which  they  unanimously  resolved  on  the  Holy  War.     It  was 
decreed,  that  all  who  should  enrol  their  names  in  this  sacred 
militia,  should  wear  a  red  cross  on  their  right  shoulder :  that 
they  should  enjoy  plenary  indulgence,  and  obuin  remission  of 

all  their  sins.  •   .     •  u      v 

From  that  time  the  pulpits  of  Europe  resounded  with  exhor- 
tations to  the  crusades.  People  of  every  rank  and  condition 
were  seen  flocking  in  crowds  to  assume  the  signal  of  the  cross ; 
and,  in  the  following  year,  innumerable  bands  of  crusaders,  from 
the  different  countries  of  Europe,  set  out,  one  after  another,  on 
this  expedition  to  the  East."  The  only  exception  was  the  Ger- 
mans,  who  partook  but  feebly  of  this  universal  enthusiasm,  on 
account  of  the  disputes  which  then  subsisted  between  the  Em- 
peror and  the  court  of  Rome."  The  three  or  four  first  divisions 
of  the  crusaders,  under  the  conduct  of  chiefs,  who  had  neither 
name  nor  experience,  inarched  without  order  end  without  disci- 
pline ;  pillaging,  burning,  and  wasting  the  countries  through 
which  they  passed.  Most  of  them  perished  from  fatigue,  hun- 
ger, or  sickness,  or  by  the  sword  of  the  exasperated  nations, 
whose  territories  they  had  laid  desolate." 

To  these  unwarlike  and  undisciplined  troops  succeeded  regu- 
lar  armies,  commanded  by  experienced  officers,  and  powerful 
princes.  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  (1096,)  Duke  of  Lorrain,  accom- 
panied by  his  brother  Baldwin,  and  his  cousin  Baldwin  of  Bo«irg, 
with  a  vast  retinue  of  noblemen,  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
first  body  of  crusaders.  He  directed  his  march  through  Uer- 
many,  Hungary,  and  Bulgaria,  towards  Constantinople,  and 
was  soon  followed  by  several  French  princes,  such  as  Hugh  the 
Great,  brother  of  Philip  I.  King  of  France ;  Robert  Duke  of 


?BBIOD  IT.      A.  0.  1074—1300. 


IIT 


U  •iBioat  Um  TuA*. 
ttttt,  umI  Ut  qoarrtU 
1  to  d«<iir  Um  projMtad 
teallid  to  it  bjr  Ui«  ra- 
lia  Htrmit,  •  Mtive  of 
tth  from  the  Patriarch 
MOfl  of  tha  Watt,  this 
f,  Franca,  and  Oarma* 
Bnting,  in  tha  liTaliast 
icaa,  and  tha  miiarabla 
rim*  in  tha  Holy  Land, 
irt  to  othara  tha  fanati* 
id.  His  nal  was  pow- 
B  repaired  in  person  to 
f  Clermont  (1095.)  and 
harangue,  at  the  close 
the  Holy  War.  It  was 
ir  names  in  this  sacred 
ir  right  shoulder :  that 
nd  obtain  remission  of 


1 


resounded  with  exhor- 
rank  and  condition 

..je  signal  of  the  cross ; 
mnds  of  crusaders,  from 
It,  one  after  another,  on 

exception  was  the  Ger< 
niversal  enthusiasm,  on 
sistod  between  the  Em- 
•ee  or  four  first  divisions 
chiefs,  who  had  neither 
order  pnd  without  disci- 
:  the  countries  through 
ished  from  fatigue,  hun- 
the  exasperated  nations, 

u 

d  troops  succeeded  regu- 
4  officers,  and  powerful 
Duke  of  Lorrain,  accom- 
ousin  Baldwin  of  Bourg, 
imself  at  the  head  of  the 
his  march  through  Ger- 
rds  Constantinople,  and 
rinces,  such  as  Hugh  the 
i'rance  ;  Robert  Duke  of 


Normandy,  son  of  William  the  Conaueror ;  Stephen  VI.,  Count 
of  Blois  ;  Eustace  of  B*Milo«ne,  brother  to  Godlrey  de  Bouillon, 
and  Robert  Count  of  Flai.J«rs,  who  all  preferred  the  route  by 
Italy.  They  pasaed  th«  wintef  m  the  environs  of  Ban,  Brm- 
disi,  and  Otranto  ;  and  did  not  embark  for  Greece  until  the  fol- 
lowing spring.  Boemond,  Prince  of  inn  um,  son  to  Roger, 
Earl  of  Sicily,  at  iUc  instigation  of  the  Freiu  h  frrnndees,  took 
the  croHs,  after  their  example,  and  carried  wiili  fiim  into  the 
East  the  flower  of  the  ^«rlnans,  and  the  woblesse  of  Sirily, 
Apulia,  and  Calabria.  Lastly,  Raymond  IV.,  c'ount  of  "ou- 
louse,  accomnrtnied  by  the  Bishop  of  Puy,  traversed  Loml/irdy, 
Friuli,  and  Dalmatia,  on  hiti  passage  to  the  Holy  Land. 

The  general  rendeavous  of  the  crusaders  was  nt  Chnlcedon 
in  Bythinia.     It  is  supposed  that  their  forces  utiit<'(l,  amounted 
to  six  hundred  thousand  combalunts.     Tliny  commence  I  ihuir 
exploits  with  the  siege  of  Nice,  cupital  of  the  empire  of  Roum, 
of  which  they  made  themselves  master,  after  having  repulsed  the 
Turks  who  had  advanced  under  the  command  of  the  Sultan 
Kili-Arslan,  the  son  of  Solimim,  premier  sultan  of  Roum.  Ano- 
ther victory  gained  over  the  same  sultan  (1097)  in  the  Gorgo- 
nian  valley  in  Bythinia,  opened  for  the  crusaders  a  passage  into 
Syria.     Tliero  they  undertook  the  siege  of  the  strong  Cyof 
Antioch,  which  they  carried  after  an  immense  loss  of  lives  (1098.) 
Having  at  length  arrived  in  Palestine,  ihcy  planned  the  attack 
of  Jerusalem,  which  the  Caliph  of  Egypt  had  ^ust  recovered 
from  the  Turks  ;  and  which  the  crusaders,  in  their  turn,  carried 
by  assault  from  the  Egyptians  (1099.)     This  city  was  declared 
the  capital  of  a  new  kincdom,  the  sovereignty  of  which  was  be- 
stowed  on  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  though  he  refused  to  take  the 
title  of  king.     This  famous  prince  extended  his  conquests  by  a 
splendid  victory,  which  he  gained  that  same  year  near  Ascalon, 
over  the  Caliph  of  Egypt.     On  his  death,  his  brother  Baldwin 
succeeded  him,  and  transmitted  the  throne  to  his  cousin  Bald- 
win of  Bourg,  whose  posterity  reigned  in  Jerusalem  until  the 
destruction  of  that  kingdom  by  Saladin  (1187.) 

Besides  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  which  comprehended  Pa- 
lestine, with  tha  cities  of  Sidon,  Tyre,  and  Ptolemais,  the  cru- 
saders founded  several  other  states  in  the  East.  The  ear.dom 
of  Edessa,  first  conquered  by  Baldwin,  brother  of  Godfrey, 
passed  to  several  French  princes  in  succession  until  the  year 
1144,  when  it  was  subdued  by  Atabek-Zenghi  commonly  called 
Sanguin.  The  principality  of  Antioch  fell  to  the  share  of  Boe- 
mond. prince  of  Tarentum,  whose  heirs  and  descendants  added 
to  it,  in  1188,  the  County  of  Tripoli,  which  had  been  founded 
(UIO)  by  Raymond,  Count  of  Toulouse,  one  of  the  crusaders. 


118 


OHAFTBB  V. 


But  they  wew  deprived  both  of  the  one  anl  th«  other  of  these 
■overeiFotiesby  the  Mamelukes  in  1268,  who  tflerwards  (1289) 
conquered  Aniioch  and  Tripoli.  LastW,  the  kinmlom  of  Cyprus 
which  Richard  Caur-de-Lion,  King  of  England,  took  from  the 
Greeks  (1191.)  was  surrendered  by  that  prince  to  Guy  de  Lu- 
signan,  whose  posterity  reigned  in  Cyprus  till  the  year  1487, 
when  that  island  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  republic  of 

Venice^  .         ,._ 

The  transient  duration  of  these  different  states,  presents  no- 
thing suprising.  The  Christians  of  the  East,  disunited  among 
themselves,  surrounded  on  all  hands,  and  incessantly  attacked 
by  powerful  nations,  found  themselves  too  remote  from  Europe 
to  obtain  from  that  quarter  any  prompt  or  effective  succoui-.  It 
was,  therefore,  impossible  for  them  long  to  withsund  the  eflorts 
of  the  Mahometans,  who  were  animated  as  well  as  the  Chris- 
tians by  a  sectarian  zeal,  which  led  them  to  combine  their  forces 
against  the  enemies  of  their  ri'ligion  and  their  prophet.  The 
enthusiasm  of  religious  wars  did  not  however  become  extinct 
until  nearly  two  centuries.  It  was  encouraged  and  supported 
by  the  numerous  privileges  which  popes  and  sovereigns  con- 
ferred on  the  invaders,  and  by  the  rich  endowments  that  were 
made  in  their  favour.  All  Europe  contioued  to  be  m  motion, 
and  all  its  principal  sovereigns  marched  in  thpir  turn  to  the 
East,  either  to  attempt  new  conquests,  or  maintain  those  which 
the  first  crusaders  had  achieved.  „    ,    .  .  v 

Six  grand  crusades  succeeded  to  the  first ;  all  of  which  were 
either  fruitless,  or  at  least  without  any  important  and  durable 
success.    Conrad  III.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  Louis  VII., 
King  of  France,  undertook  the  second  (1147.)  on  account  of  the 
conquests  of  Atabek-Zenghi,  who,  three  yeaw  before,  had  made 
himlelf  master  of  Edessa.     The  third  (1189)  was  headed  by 
the  Emperor  Frederic  I.,  surnamed  Barbarossa ;  Fhilip  Augus- 
tus King  of  France ;  and  !lichard  Cceur-de-Lion  of  England; 
and  the  occasion  of  it,  was  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  by  the  fa- 
mous Saladin  (1187.)     The  fourth  was  undertaken  (1^)  at 
the  pressing  instigation  of  Innocent  III.    Several  of  the  French 
and  German  nobility  uniting  with  the  Venetians,  assumed  the 
cross  under  the  command  of  Boniface,  Marquis  of  Montferrat ; 
but  instead  of  marching  to  Palestine,  they  ended  their  expedi- 
tion by  taking  Constantinople  from  the  Greeks.    The  fifth  cru- 
sade (1217)  was  conducted  by  Andrew,  King  of  Hungary,  at- 
tended  by  many  of  the  princes  and  nobility  of  Germany,  who 
had  enKsted  under  the  banner  of  the  Cross  in  consequence  of 
the  decrees  of  the  council  of  Lateran  (1216.)    The  Emperor 
Frederic  II.  undertook  the  sixth  (1228.)    By  a  treaty  which  he 


1 


e  wai  tl|6  oth«r  of  these 
8,  \rho  afterwards  (1289) 
,  the  kingdom  of  Cyprus 
{Inglana,  took  from  the 
it  pripce  to  Guy  de  Lu- 
prus  till  the  year  1487, 
m  of  by  the  republic  of 

rent  states,  presents  no- 

e  East,  disunited  among 

and  incessantly  attacked 

too  remote  from  Europe 

or  effective  succour.    It 

ig  to  withsttind  the  efforts 

ted  as  well  as  the  Chris- 

m  to  combine  their  forces 

and  their  prophet.     The 

however  become  extinct 

icournged  and  supported 

)pes  and  sovereigns  con- 

h  endowments  that  were 

ontiuued  to  be  in  motion, 

ched  in  th^Ir  turn  to  the 

,  or  maintain  those  which 

e  first ;  all  of  which  were 
ny  important  and  durable 
rermany,  and  Louis  VII., 
1  (II47,)  on  account  of  the 
ee  years  before,  had  made 
rd  (1189)  was  headed  by 
larbarossa ;  Philip  Augus- 
Eur-de-Lion  of  England; 
T  of  Jerusalem  by  the  fa- 
vas  undertaken  (1202,)  at 
[I.  Several  of  the  French 
s  Venetians,  assumed  the 
',,  Marquis  of  Montferrat ; 
,  they  ended  their  expedi- 
le  Greeks.  The  fifth  cru- 
ew.  King  of  Hungary,  at- 
kobility  of  Germany,  who 
Cross  in  consequence  of 
n  (1216.)  The  Emperor 
9.)    By  a  treaty  which  h« 


nvM  vr.    A.  o.  1074—1300. 


110 


concluded  with  th%8nltan  of  Egypt,  he  obtained  the  restoration 
of  Jerusalem  and  Beveral  other  cities  of  Palestine ;  although 
they  did  not  long  continue  in  his  possession.  The  Carizmian 
Turks,  oppressed  by  the  Moguls,  seized  on  the  Holy  Land 
(1244,)  and  pillaged  and  burnt  Jerusalem.  That  (amous  city, 
together  with  the  greater  part  of  Palestine,  fell  afterwards  under 
the  dominion  of  the  Sultans  of  Egypt. 

The  seventh  and  last  grand  crusacle,  was  undertaken  by  Louis 
IX.  King  of  France  (1348.)  He  conceived  it  necessary  to  be* 
gin  his  conquests  by  that  of  Egypt;  but  his  design  completely 
miscarried.  Being  made  prisoner  with  his  army  alter  the  action 
at  Mansoura  (1250,)  he  only  obtained  his  liberty  by  restoring 
Damietta,  and  paying  a  large  ransom  to  the  Sultan  of  Egypt. 
The  unfortunate  issue  of  this  last  expedition,  slackened  the  zeal 
of  the  Europeans  for  crusading.  Still,  however,  they  retained 
two  important  places  on  the  coast  of  Syria,  the  cities  of  Tyre 
and  Ptolemais.  But  these  places  having  been  conquered  by  ilie 
Mamelukes  (1291,)  there  waa  no  longer  any  talk  about  crusades 
to  the  East ;  and  all  the  attempts  of  the  Court  of  Rome  to  revive 
them  proved  ineffectual. 

It  now  remains  for  us  briefly  to  notice  the  effects  which  re- 
sulted from  the  crusades,  with  regard  to  the  social  and  political 
state  of  the  nations  in  Western  Europe.  One  consequence  of 
these,  was  the  aggrandizement  .of  the  Roman  Pontiffs,  who, 
during  the  whole  period  of  the  crusades,  played  the  part  of  su- 
preme chiefs  and  sovereign  masters  of  Christendom.  It  was  at 
their  request,  as  we  have  seen,  that  those  religious  wars  were 
undertaken  ;  it  was  they  who  directed  them  by  means  of  their 
legates, — who  compelled  emperors  and  kings,  by  the  terror  of 
their  spiritual  arms,  to  march  under  the  banner  of  the  Cross — 
who  taxed  the  clergy  at  their  pleasure,  to  defray  the  expenses 
of  these  distant  expeditions, — who  took  under  their  immediate 
protection  the  persons  and  effects  of  the  Crusaders,  and  eman- 
cipated them  Sy  means  of  special  privileges,  from  all  depend- 
ence on  any  power,  civil  or  judiciary.  The  wealth  of  the  clergy 
was  considerably  increased  during  the  time  of  which  we^peak, 
both  by  the  numerous  endowments  which  took  place,  and  by 
the  acquisition  which  the  Church  made  of  the  immense  landed 
property  which  the  pious  owners  sold  them  on  assuming  the 
badge  of  the  Crosa. 

These  advantages  which  the  See  of  Rome  drew  from  the 
crusades  in  the  East,  were  inducements  to  undertake  similar 
expeditions  in  the  West  and  North  of  Europe.  In  these  qaar- 
ters  we  find  that  the  wars  of  the  cross,  were  carried  on,  I. 
Against  the  ICahometans  of  Spain  and  Africa.    2.  Against  th« 


r 


iti 


w 


aurm  ▼• 


Pasui  natiM.  «B  «h»  cowts  of  the  Bdtic.  «.  Ag«in«t  the 
^JVWdenseeTiWteiirt-.  wd  Hussites,  who  were  regarded  as 
hereUes.    «.  AgWMl»tha,Tuik8. 

If  the  result  of  the  crusades  was  adTantageons  to  the  hier- 
archy, if  it  serred  to  aggrandiie  the  power  of  the  Roman  Pon- 
tift,  it  must,  on  the  contrary,  have  pro»«d  obviously  prejudicial 
to  the  authority  of  the  secular  princes.    It  waa  in  fact  daring 
this  period  that  the  power  of  the  emperors,  both  in  Germany 
and  ftiily.  was  sapped  to  the  very  foundation;  that  the  roy«il 
house  of  Hohenstaofen  sunk  under  the  deUsrmined  efforto  of  the 
Court  of  Rome ;  and  that  the  federal  system  of  the  Empre  gained 
nadual  accessions  of  strength.     In  England  aiid  Hungary,  we 
observe  how  the  grandees  seized  on  the  opportunity  to  increase 
their  own  power.     The  former  took  advantage  of  their  sove- 
reiim'8  absence  in  the  Holy  Land,  and  the  latter  of  the  protec- 
tion which  they  received  from  the  Popes,  to  claim  new  pnvi- 
leees  and  extort  charters,  such  as  they  did  from  John  of  England, 
and  Andrew  II.  of  Hungary,  tending  to  finpple  and  circumscribe 
the  royal  authority.  . 

In  France,  however,  the  result  was  different.     There,  tlie 
kinjrs  being  freed,  by  means  of  the  crusades,  from  a  crowd  ot 
restless  and  turbulent  vassals  who  often  threw  the  kingdom  into 
n  state  of  faction  and  discord,  were  left*t  liberty  to  exUmd  their 
prerojmtiTes,  and  turn  the  scale  of  power  in  their  own  favofur. 
They  even  considerably  augmented  their  royal  and  territorial 
revenues,  either  by  purchasing  lands  and  fiefs  from  the  prppne- 
tors  who  had  armed  in  the  cause  of  the  cross ;  or  by  annextiw 
to  the  crown  the  estates  of  those  who  died  in  the  Holy  iiand, 
without  leaving  feudal  heirs;  or  by  soiling  the  forfeitures  ol 
others  who  were  persecuted  by  religious  fanaticism,  as  heretics 
or  abettors  of  heresy.    Finally,  the  Christian  kings  of  Spam, 
the  sovereigns  of  the  North,  the  Knighte  of  the  Teutonic  wder, 
and  of  Livonia,  joined  the  crusades  recommended  by  the  Fopes, 
from  the  desire  of  conquest ;  the  former,  to  aoMo?  the  Ma- 
hometans in  Spain,  and  the  others  to  vanowsh  the  Pagan 
nations  of  the  North,  the  Slavonians,  Pmns,  Livonians,  Prus- 
sians, Lithuanians,  and  Courlanders.        .      _  . 

It  is  to  the  cruaades,  in  like  manner,  that  Earone  owes  the 
use  of  somamea,  as  well  as  of  armorial  hearmss,  and  heraldry. " 
h  is  easT  to  porceivB,  that  amop;it  *•••  tnnnmerable  amnes  oi 
cTusaden.  composed  of  diffewnt  nattons  "i^w^W^-^X 
amk  or  symbol  wmi  necessary,  m  order  to  distingaish  p^rtKalv 


ne«  to  dM-orden  «f  tiM 
itie  prfawM,  «ach  u  the 
SiftToofama  and  other 
idtic.  H.  Against  the 
who  wet*  regarded  as 

vantageons  to  the  hier- 
ver  of  the  Roman  Pen- 
Ml  obviously  prejudicial 
It  was  in  fact  during 
erors,  both  in  Germany 
ndation;  that  the  royu 
lelermined  efforts  of  the 
em  of  the  Empire  gained 
gland  aiid  Hungary,  we 
I  opportunity  to  increase 
d^ntage  of  their  sove- 
the  latter  of  the  protec« 
pes,  to  claim  new  privi- 
d  from  John  of  England, 
«ripple  and  circumscribe 

s  diflerent.  There,  the 
rusades,  from  a  crowd  of 
n  threw  the  kingdom  into 
■at  liberty  to  extend  their 
iwer  in  their  own  favour, 
leir  royal  and  territorial 
md  fiefs  from  the  prpprie- 
le  cross ;  or  bv  anneidiu; 
o  died  in  the  Holy  Land, 
seizing  the  forfeitures  ol 
us  fanaticism,  as  heretics 
Ihristian  kings  of  Spain, 
i\B  of  theTei|tonie  Mder, 
lommended  by  the  Popes, 
mer,  to  subdo^the  lla* 
to  Tanqiiish  the  Pagan 
Fkuu,  Livonians,  Prus* 

»r,  that  Europe  owes  the 
bearings,  and  heraldry. " 
le  innameraUe  armies  of 
ens  and  langoages,  some 
it  to  distinguish  porticidw 


■W'' 


KBioD  nr.    A.  0. 1074 — 1900. 


in 


nations,  or  signalize  their  commanders.  Surnames  and  coats 
of  arms  were  employed  as  these  distinctive  badges ;  the  latter 
especially  were  invented  to  serve  as  rallying  f^^t*  for  the  vas* 
sals  and  troops  of  the  crusading  chiefs.  N'^eeasAf  first  intro- 
duced  them,  and  vanity  afterwards  caused  theil  ta  be.retained. 
These  coats  of  arms  were  hoisted  on  their  stand  )rds,  the  knights 
got  them  emblazoned  on  their  shields,  and  app<ived  with  them 
at  tournaments.  Even  Uii  je  who  had  never  been  at  the  cru- 
sades, became  ambitious  of  these  distinctions ;  which  mav  be 
considered  as  permanently  establidhed  in  families,  from  about 
the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

The  same  enthusiasm  that  inspired  the  Europeans  for  the 
crusades,  contributed  in  like  manner  to  bring  tournaments  into 
vogue,  in  these  "solemn  and  military  sports,  the  young  noblesse 
were  trained  to  violent  exercises,  and  to  the  management  of 
heavy  arms  ;  so  as  to  gain  them  some  reputation  for  valour,  and 
to  insure  their  superiority  in  war.  In  order  to  be  admitted  to 
these  tournaments  it  was  necessary-  to  be  of  noble  blood,  and  to 
show  procfs  of  their  nobility.  The  origin  of  these  feats  is  ge- 
nerally  traced  back  to  the  end  of  the  tenth,  or  beginning  of 
the  eleventh  century.  Geoffrey  of  Preuilly,  whom  the  writers 
of  the  middle  ages  cite  as  being  the  inventor  of  them,  did  no 
more,  properly  speaking,  than  draw  up  their  code  of  rep  a- 
tions.  France  was  the  country  from  which  the  practice  of 
tournaments  diffused  itself  over  all  other  nations  of  Europe. 
They  were  very  frequent,  during  all  the  time  that  the  crusadmg 
mania  lasted. 

To  this  same  epoch  belongs  the  institution  of  Religious  and 
Military  Orders.  These  were  originallv  established  for  the 
pui^Mwe  of  defending  the  new  Christian  States  in  the  East,  for 
protecting  pilgrims  on  their  journey,  taking  care  of  them  when 
sick,  &c.;  and  the  vast  wealth  which  they  acquired  in  most  of  the 
kingdoms  of  Europe,  preserved  their  existence  long  after  the 
loss  of  the  Holy  Land  ;  and  some  of  these  orders  even  made 
a  conspicuous  %ure  in  the  political  history  of  the  Western 
nations. 

Of  all  these,  the  first  and  most,  distinguished  ^vas  the  Order 
of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  called  afterwards  the  Order  of  Mai' 
ta.  Prior  to  the  first  crusade,  there  had  existed  at  Jerusalem  « 
church  of  the  Latin  or  Romish  liturcy,  dedicated  to  St.  Mary, 
and  founded  by  some  merchants  of  Amalfi  in  the  kingdom  of 
Naples.  There  was  also  a  monastery  of  the  Order  of  St.  Be- 
nedict, and  a  hospital  for  the  relief  of  the  poor  or  afflicted  pil- 
grims. This  hospital,  the  directors  of  which  'were  appointed 
oy  the  Abbot  of  St  Mary's,  having  in  a  very  short  time  becoma 

VOL.  u  11 


-""'^^Bsmmemiimmmmsm^ 


in 


cHimt  ▼. 


immensely  rich  by  numerous  donations  of  lands  and  seignones, 
wSTn  Su"ope  and  Palestine,  one  of  its  governors  named  Ge. 
rard  a  native  of  Hartigues  in  Provence,  as  is  alleged,  took  the 
"JiChabit(im)  Jnd  formed  with  bis  brethren  a  Jistmct 
conirreaalion,  under  the  name  and  protection  of  St.  John  the 
ffist      Pope  Pascal  II.,  by  a  bulf  issued  in  1114,  aoproved 
K  s  now  e^ablishment.  and  ordained,  that  after  the  (Teath  of 
Gerard,  the  Hospitallers  alone  should  have  the  election  of  the,r 
superintendent.     Raymond  du  Puy,  a  gentleman  from  »?«- 
Srand  successor  10  Gerard,  was  the  first  that  took  the  tale 
5f  G^nd  Master.     He  prescribed  a  rule  ^r  the  Ho^p.talkrs  ; 
and  Pope  Calixtus  II.,  in  approving  of  this  rule  (1120 )  divided 
Se  members  of  the  order  into  three  classes.     The  nobles,  called 
Ktrof  Justice,  were  destined  for  the  profession  of  arms, 
mSking  war  on  the  Infidels,  and  protecting  pilgrims.     The 
priest8\nd  chaplains,  selected  from  the  respectable  ci  .zens 
wire  intrusted  with  functions  purely  ecclesiastical ;  while  the 
rervinKbrethren.  who  formed  the  third  class,  were  charged  with 
the  "are  of  sick  pilgrims,  and  likewise  to  act  in  the  capacity  of 
soldier^.     These  new  knights  were  known  by  the  name  of 
K^ghts  of  the  Hospital  of  St.  John  o//m««&;«.  and  were  dis- 
UnRSished  by  wearing  a  white  octagon  cross  on  a  black  habit. 

After  the  final  loss  of  the  Holy  Land,  this  order  established 
themselves  in  the  Isle  of  Cyprus.    /p/^V  ffi  Uslo  ) 
Rhodes,  which  they  had  conquered  ^-^^J  .''^^JSS^^^jS 
This  latter  island  they  kept  possession  of  till  ?S^;  ""J  "^'"J 
then  expelled  bv  Soliman  the  Great,  they  obtained  (1530)  from 
Ch«lesV.  themunificent  grant.of  the  J^^"  M»»g. -^er  t^ 
express  terms  of  making  war  against  the  Infidels     Of  this  place 
they  were  at  length  deprived  by  B""""?*'  « '"  Jl^j„u.   \^ 
the  order  of  Tomfi.^x^  lullowed  nearly  that  of  St.  John,    its 
firs^  fou^^r.  ^im  i^resomeFrenchgentlemen;  the  chief 
of  V  ■         were  HugoTe  Payens,  and  Geoffrey  de  St.  Omer. 
Havin^'mXa  decl^aU^^  vows  before. the  Patriarch 

of  JeSsTlem,  they  took  upon  themselves  the  special  charge  of 
m.inSSnir  free  passage  knd  safe  conduct  for  the  pilgrims  to 
r  KLnd  'Baldwin,  king  of  Jerusalem,  assigned  them 
S.  .pwtmem  in  his  palace,  near  the  temple,  whence  they  tc^k 
The^me  of  Knights  of  the  TempU,  and  Tmplart.  They  ob- 
ti*n3"rU  Pope*Hono^ius  II.  (1120)  a  rule.^^^^ 
to  Siicb  Eugene  UI.  added  a  red  cross  octagon.  This  order, 
3t«  accumuLng  v«t  wealth  and  riches,  especially  »«  F-«n^e. 
IS  dUtLaishing  themselves  by  their  military  exploits  for 
Srirti^Sntutfes.  were  .t  'Agth  suppressed  by  the  CouncU 
of  Vienna  (1312.) 


Df  lands  and  seignoriei^ 
governors  named  Qe* 
as  is  alleged,  took  the 
his  brethren  a  distinct 
tection  of  St.  John  the 
ued  in  1114,  approved 
,  that  after  the  death  of 
ive  the  election  of  their 
gentleman  from  Dau> 
first  that  took  the  title 
e  for  the  Hospitallers  ; 
his  rule  (1120,)  divided 
The  nobles,  called 
the  profession  of  arms, 
tecting  pilgrims.     The 
he  respectable  citizens, 
cclesiastical ;  while  the 
class,  were  charged  with 
to  act  in  the  capacity  of 
mown  by  the  name  of 
JeriaaUm,  and  were  dis- 
cross  on  a  black  habit, 
id,  this  order  established 
om  this  they  passed  into 
rom  the  Infidels  (1310.) 
of  till  1522 ;  and  being 
ley  obtained  (1530)  from 
•  ts\e  of  Malta,  under  the 
e  Infidels.    Of  this  place 
aparte  in  1798.  ' 

irly  that  of  St.  John.  Its 
ch  gentlemen ;  the  chief 
I  Geoffrey  de  St.  Omer. 
)ws  before ,  the  Patriarch 
ves  the  special  charge  of 
nduct  for  the  pilgrims  to 
erusalem,  assigned  them 
erople,  whence  they  took 
nd  Templart.  They  ob- 
I  rale,  with  a  white  habit ; 
8S  octagon.  This  order« 
hes,  especially  in  France, 
leir  muitary  exploits  for 
uppreated  by  the  Council 


TKiioD  IV.    A.  p.  1074—1300.  Ml 

The  Teutonic  order,  according  to  the  most  probable  opinion, 
took  its  origin  in  the  camp  before  Acre,  or  Ptolemais.  The 
honour  of  it  is  ascribed  to  some  charitable  citisegs  of  Bremen 
and  Lubec,  who  erected  a  hospital  or  tent  with  tbe  sails  of  their 
vessels,  for  the  relief  of  the  numerous  sick  and  wounded  of  their 
nation.  Several  Oerman  gentlemen  having  joined  in  this  esta- 
blishment, they  devoted  themselves  by  a  vow  to  the  service  of 
the  sick ;  as  also  to  the  defence  of  the  Holy  Land  against  the 
Infidels.  This  order,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Teutonic 
Knights  of  St.  Mary  of  Jerusalem,  received  confirmation  from 
Pope  Calixtus  III.  (1192,)  who  prescribed  for  them  the  rule  of 
the  Hospital  of  St.  John,  with  regard  to  their  attendance  on  the 
sick ;  and  with  regard  to  chivalry  or  knighthood,  that  of  the 
order  of  Templars.  Henry  Walpott  de  Passenheim  was  the 
first  grand  master  of  the  order ;  and  the  new  knights  assumed 
the  white  habit,  with  a  red  cross,  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
other  orders.  It  was  under  their  fourth  grand  master,  Hermann 
de  Saltza  (12.30,)  that  they  passed  into  Prussia,  which  they 
conquered  (1309.)  They  fixed  their  chief  residence  at  Marien* 
burg ;  but  having  lost  Prussia  in  consequence  of  a  change  in 
the  religious  sentiments  of  their  grand  master,  Albert  de  Bran- 
denburg  (152S,)  they  transferred  their  capital  to  Mergentheim, 
in  Franconia. 

A  fourth  order  of  Hospitallers  founded  in  the  Holjr  Land,  was 
that  of  St.  Lazarus  of  Jerusalem,  who  had  for  their  principal 
object  the  treatment  of  lepers  ;**  and  who,  in  process  of  time, 
from  a  medical,  became  a  military  order.  After  having  long 
resided  in  the  East,  where  they  distinguished  themselves  in  the 
Holy  wars,  they  followed  St.  Louis  into  France  (1254,)  and 
fixed  their  chief  seat  at  Boigny,  near  Orleans.  Pope  Gregory 
XIII.  united  them  with  the  order  of  St.  Maurice,  in  Savoy; 
and  Henry  IV.  mth  that  of  Our  Lady  of  Mount  Carmel,  in 
France.  On  the  model,  and  after  the  example  of  these  four 
military  orders,  several  others  were  founded  in  succession,  in 
various  kingdoms  of  Europe."  All  these  institutions  contri- 
buted greatly  to  the  renown  of  chivalry,  so  famous  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  The  origin  of  this  latter  institution  is  earlier  than  the 
times  of  which  we  now  speak,  ard  seems  to  belong  to  the  tenth, 
or  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century.  The  anarchy  of  feu- 
dalism being  then  at  its  height,  and  robberies  and  private  quar- 
rels every  where  prevailing,  several  noble  and  distinguished 
individuals,  devoted  themselves,  by  a  solemn  vow,  accordiiag  to 
the  genius  of  the  times,  to  the  defence  of  religion  and  its  minis- 
ters ;  as  also  of  the  fair  sex,  and  of  every  person  sufiering  from 
distress  or  oppression.    From  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century, 


iHWMW.miiiinwiw'H''" 


CHA?TBB  T. 

to  the  time  when  the  crusades  bemin,  we  find  chiydry,  with  its 
Mmp  and  its  ceremonies,  establislied  in  all  the  pnnci«a  suites 
JfSirope.  This  salutary  institution,  by  inspmng  Oie  minds 
S  men  with  new  energy,  gave  birth  to  ">•»][  «>X"trrevl; 
laeters.  It  tended  to  repress  the  disorders  of  anarchy,  to  revive 
^er  and  law,  and  estafclish  a  new  relationship  among  the  na- 

^Z  ISSTmay  be  said,  that  these  ultra-marme  expeditions. 
proiSted  with  obstinacy  for  nearly  two  hundred  ye«".  Jj^  «"' 
JdAe  progress  of  arts  and  civilization  in  Europe.  .The  cru- 
saders, journeying  through  kingdoms  better  organized  than 
SeHwii.  and  observing  greater  refinement  in  their  laws  and 
SJnnZwere  necessaSly  led  to  form  new  ideas,  and  acqujre 
MW  information  with  regard  to  science  and  pol'lif?-  f""*; 
vestiires  of  learning  and  good  taste  had  been  preserved  in  Greece, 
Md Tven  in  the  extremities  of  Asia,  where  ^iters  had  bec-n 
Scoured  by  the  patronage  of  the  Caliphs.     The  ciy  of  Con- 

JSn^le,  w\ich  Ld  not  yet  8uff«ed  f'«>™  »»»'  TT"  U  t 
barbarians,  abounded  in  the  finest  monumenU  of  art.  It  pre- 
Sited  to  the  eyes  of  the  crusaders,  a  speclacle  of  grandeur  anJ 
Sficence  that  could  not  but  excite  i^eir  ad"..rat.on,  and  ca 
forth  a  strong  desire  to  imitate  those  models,  the  sight  of  wh  b 
a°  once  pleas! d  and  astonished  them.  To  the  Italians  especially, 
it  nu«t  We  proved  of  great  advantage.  The  continued  nter- 
coSS  wSiey  maintained  with  the  East  and  the  city  ol 
cSinUnople,  Xded  them  the  means  of  becoming  familiar 
ISthe  kngu^ge  and  literature  of  the  Greeks,  of  communica- 
S?  (he  sime  teste  to  their  own  countrymen,  and  m  this  way 
adnmcing  the  glorious  epoch  of  the  reviva  of  letters. 

Ahout  the  same  time,  commerce  and  navigation  were  making 
conJderaUe  progress.  The  cities  of  Italy,  such  as  Venice, 
gSS!  pSI  End  others,  in  assisting  the  Crusaden.  in  their  ope- 

w^  which  they  furnished  them,  continued  to  secure  for  them- 
IStos  Snportant  privileges  and  establishments  m  the  seaports 
S  Ai  Lev^t,  Jd  othir  port,  in  the  Greek  emP««^^Jheir 
example  excited  the  industry  of  several  "»"'f"««  ^^^f.'" 
FranJe,  and  taught  them  the  advantage  of  applying  their  gten- 
Uonto  Eastern  commerce.    In  the  North,  the  cities  of  Ham- 
tah  a^d  Lubec.  formed,  about  the  year  1241.  as  is  generally 
SSosed,  their  first  commercial  association,  which  afterwards 
SSme  s^  formidable  under  the  name  o  the.  «"!«2l  j^^" 
iS^taDle  articles  of  these  latter  cities,  consisted  m  manne 
^..aJdot"er  productions  of  the  North,  which  they  e«ha^^^ 
for"he  spicerios  if  the  East,  and  the  manufactures  of  Itoly  and 
Ihe  Low  Countries. 


,  find  chivaliy.  with  its 
all  the  principal  states 
ly  inspiring  the  minds 
many  illustrious  cha* 
rs  of  anarchy,  to  revive 
ionship  among  the  na- 

tra-marine  expeditions, 
hundred  years,  hasten- 
in  Europe.     The  cru- 
better  organized   than 
ment  in  their  laws  and 
new  ideas,  and  acquire 
._  and  politics.     Some 
een  preserved  in  Greece, 
where  letters  had  been 
iphs.     The  city  of  Con- 
from  the  ravages  of  the 
luments  of  art.     It  pre- 
)eclac]e  of  grandeur  and 
heir  admiration,  and  call 
Ddels,  the  sight  of  which 
'o  the  Italians  especially, 
!.     The  continued  inler- 
le  East  and  the  city  ol 
ns  of  becoming  familiar 
J  Greeks,  of  communica- 
.rynien,  and  in  this  way 
ivival  of  letters, 
navigation  were  making 
f  Italy,  such  as  Venice, 
le  Crusaders  in  their  ope- 
risions,  and  warlike  stores 
inued  to  secure  for  them- 
ishments  in  the  seaports 
e  Greek  empire.     Their 
reral  maritime  towns  in 
[e  of  applying  their  atten- 
iforth,  the  cities  of  Ham- 
rear  1241,  as  is  generally 
ciatioR,  which  afterwards 
of  the  HanseaticLtaguf.** 
ities,  consisted  in  marine 
rth,  which  they  exchanged 
manufacturas  of  Italy  and 


PIRIOD  lY.     A.  o.  1074—1900. 

The  prognta  of  indiutry,  the  protection  which  ■overaigna 
extended  to  it,  and  the  pains  they  took  to  check  the  disorders  of 
feudalism,  contributed  to  the  prosperity  of  towns,  b^  daily  aag' 
menting  their  population  and  their  wealth.  This  produced, 
about  the  times  we  ore  speaking  of,  an  advantageous  change  in 
the  civil  and  social  conaition  of  the  people.  Throughout  the 
principal  states  of  Europe,  cities  benn,  after  the  twelfth  centu* 
ry,  to  erect  themselves  mto  political  bodies,  and  to  form,  by  de* 
ffrees,  a  third  order,  distinct  from  that  of  the  clergy  and  nobilit]r. 
Before  this  period,  the  inhabitants  of  towns  enjoyed  neither  civil 
nor  political  liberty.  Their  condition  was  very  little  better  than 
that  of  the  peasantry,  who  were  all  serfs,  attached  to  the  soil. 
The  rights  of  citizenship,  and  the  privileges  derived  from  it, 
were  reserved  for  the  clergy  and  the  noblesse.  The  Counts,  or 
governors  of  cities,  by  rendering  theur  power  hereditary,  had 
appropriated  to  themselves  the  rights  that  were  originally  at- 
tached to  their  functions.  They  used  them  in  the  most  arbi 
trary  way,  and  loaded  the  inhabitants  with  every  kind  of  oppres 
sion  that  avarice  or  caprice  could  su^^st. 

At  length,  the  cities  which  were  either  the  most  oppressed, 
or  the  most  powerftil,  rose  in  rebellion  against  this  intolerable 
yoke.  The  inhabitants  formed  themselves  into  confederations, 
to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  Communes  or  Free  Corpora- 
tions. Either  of  their  own  accord,  or  by  charters,  obtained  very 
often  on  burdensome  terms,  they  procured  for  themselves  a  free 
government,  which,  by  relieving  them  from  servitude,  and  all 
impositions  and  arbitrary  exactions,  secured  them  personal  liberty 
and  the  possession  of  their  effects,  under  the  protection  of  their 
own  magistrates,  and  the  institution  of  a  militia,  or  city  guard. 
This  revolution,  one  of  the  most  important  in  Europe,  first  took 
place  in  Italy,  where  it  was  occasioned  by  the  frequent  inter- 
regnums that  occurred  in  Germany,  as  well  as  by  the  distur- 
bances that  rose  between  the  Empire  and  the  priesthood,  in  the 
eleventh  century.  The  anathemas  thundered  against  Henry 
IV.,  by  absolving  the  subjects  from  the  obedience  they  owed 
their  sovereign,  served  as  a  pretext  to  the  cities  of  Italy  for 
shaking  off  the  authority  of  the  Imperial  viceroys,  or  bailiffs, 
who  had  become  t3rrants  instead  of  rulers,  and  for  establishing 
free  and  republican  governments.  In  this,  they  were  encoura^ 
ged  and  supported  by  the  protection  of  the  Roman  pontiffi, 
whose  sole  aim  and  policy  was  the  abasement  of  the  imperial 
authority.  ^ 

Before  this  period,  several  maritime  cities  of  Italy,  such  M' 
Naples,  Amalfi,  Venice,  Pisa,  and  Genoa,  emboldened  by  the 
advantages  of  their  situation,  by  the  increase  of  their  population 


MRMaMMMfmMMWlHMM 


m  OBArn*  V. 

Md  Uieir  commerce,  had  already  emancipated  t"*'"""*;;"  ' '»" 
the  ImMiial  voke,  and  erected  themselves  mto  repuWlcs.  Their 
SLilffSi  fXwed  by  the  cities  of  Lombardy  and  the  Vene- 
SrSJri^y   especially  Milan,  Pavia,  AsU,  Cremona,  Lodi. 
Sii^pS  Placentia.  Verona,  Padua,  fcc.    All  those  cities, 
SitJd  w"S  rhJenthn'siaam  of  liberty,  adopted  ;bo«taieb.- 
Zianinff  of  the  twelfth  century,  consuls  and  popular  forms  ot 
STeiment     They  formed  a' kind  of  military  force,  or  city 
K2d?wd  vested  in  themselves  the  rights  of  royalty,  and  the 
Sower  of  making,  in  their  own  name  and  au  hority,  al  lances, 
™  a^dTrS  of  peace.    From  Italy,  this  revolution  ex- 
S2d"o  Fmnce  and  6erm,ny,  the  Low  Countries  and  Eng- 
Umd     In  aU  these  different  states,  the  use  of  Communes,  or 
bSiighs.  was  established,  and  protected  by  the  'overe.gns  who 
2pl?yed  these  new  institutions  as  apowe'ftil  check  against 
the  encroachments  and  tyranny  of  the  feudal  lords. 

In  France,  Louis  the  Fat,  who  began  his  re'gn,'"  ""'=*'7" 
thifimkinii  that  granted  rights,  or  constitutional  charters,  to 
SJtSn  ciU?s  within  his  domain,  either  from  pol.t.cal  moUves. 
SXal  urement  of  money.     The  nobUity,  after  h.s  example, 
•Lnrlvsold  liberty  to  their  subjects.     The  revolution  became 
SSfthe  cVy  L  liberty  was  raised  every  where,  and  .nle- 
Sited  every  mind.    Throughout  all  the  provinces,  the  iiihabi- 
SSTof  cTtfes  sScited  charters,  and  sometimes  without  waUjng 
SrAem  thev  formed  themselves  voluntonly  into  communities, 
SLun^nu^^K^ of  thrown  choice,  establishingcompan.es 
JfSufia  aSd  taking  charge  themselves  of  Oie  Jj'^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
mvdenship  of  their  cities.    The  magistrates  of  free  cities  in 
MT^ern  /ranee,  were  usually  called  mayors,  sheriffs,  and  hv- 
SJmen  :  w^le,  n  the  south  of  France,  they  were  called  synd^s 
STcon  ub      It  soon  became  an  established  pr  nc.ple.  tha  kings 
lioac  had  the  power  to  authorize  the  erection  of  corporate  towns. 
Kis  VIII  declared  that  he  regarded  all  cities  in  which  these 
mrpomtions  were  established,  as  belonging  to  his  domain.   They 
3  military  service  directly  and  personally  to  the  ^ing  ;  whi  e 
S cities  as  had  not  these'rights  or  charters,  were  obliged  to 
iWlow  their  chiefs  to  the  war.  .u.  .„„,»  nnlirv 

In  Germany,  we  find  the  emperors  adopting  the  same  pohcy 
«Ae  kings  o  France.  The  resources  which  the  frogressoi 
Smmerceand  manufactures  opened  »<> '^e  mdustry  of  the  m- 
bdbitants  of  cities,  and  the  important  succours  wh^ch>he  empe 
mn  Henrv  IV.  and  V..  had  received  from  them  in  their  quar- 
S'wiS,  tL  Popeand'the  princes  of  the  E'npi'«.i«<i"-Jf;"! 
Ttoke  these  citiSs  under  their  protection.  '^^S^^^'^'il^'Z- 
Ui,  and  multiply  their  privileges.     Henry  V.  was  the  hrst  em 


.'•.*  .  0 


RBIOD  IT.     A.  D.  1074—1300. 


vn 


ipated  dMoiMlTei  from 
» into  repnbliet.  Their 
ombardy  and  the  Vene- 
Asti,  Cremona,  Lodi, 
,  ke.  All  these  cities, 
adopted,  about  the  be- 
and  popular  forms  of 
military  force,  or  city 
;hts  of  royalty,  and  the 
and  authority,  alliances, 
tdy,  this  revolution  ex- 
ow  Countries,  and  Eng- 
use  of  Communes,  or 
d  by  the  sovereigns,  who 
powerful  check  against 
feudal  lords. 

n  his  reign  in  llOS,  was 
onstitutional  charters,  to 
ir  from  political  motives, 
}bility,  after  his  example, 
The  revolution  became 
d  every  where,  and  inte- 
the  provinces,  the  inhabi- 
)metimes  without  waiting 
intarily  into  communities, 
;e,  establishing  companies 
es  of  the  fortifications  and 
gistrates  of  free  cities  in 
mayors,  sheriffs,  and  liv- 
»,  they  were  called  syndics 
lished  principle,  that  kings 
rection  of  corporate  towns. 
I  all  cities  in  which  these 
iginff  to  his  domain.  They 
ionolly  to  the  king  ;  while 
'  charters,  were  obliged  to 

adopting  the  same  policy 
ces  which  the  progress  of 

to  the  industry  of  the  in- 
succours  which  the  empe- 
,  from  them  in  their  quar- 
the  Empire,  induced  them 
ion,  to  augment  their  num- 
lenry  V.  was  the  first  em- 


peror that  adopted  this  line  of  policy.  He  granted  freeaom  to 
the  inhabitants  of  several  cities,  even  to  artisans  and  tradesmen ; 
whose  condition,  at  that  time,  was  as  degraded  and  debased  as 
that  of  serfs.  He  extended  to  them  the  rank  and  privUeaes  of 
citiiens,  and  thus  gave  rise  to  the  division  of  cities  into  classes 
and  corporations  of  trades.  This  same  prince  set  about  repair- 
ing the  fault  which  the  emperors  of  the  house  of  Saxony  had 
committed,  of  giving  up  to  the  bichops  the  temporal  iurisdiction 
in  all  the  cities  wherem  they  resided.  He  gradually  superse- 
ded these  rights,  by  the  new  privileges  which  he  granted  to  the 
inhabitants  of  cities.  The  emperors,  his  successors,  followed 
his  example ;  in  a  little  time,  several  of  these  cities  threw  off 
the  yoke  of  their  bishops,  while  others  extricated  themselves 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  their  superiors,  or  provosts,  whether 
imperial  or  feudal,  and  adopted,  in  imitation  of  the  cities  in  Italy 
and  France,  magistrates  of  their  own  choosing,  a  republican 
form  of  government,  and  a  municipal  polity. 

This  liberty  in  cities,  gave  new  vigour  to  industry,  multiplied 
the  sources  of  labour,  and  created  means  of  opulence  and  power, 
till  then  unknown  in  Europe.  The  population  of  these  cities 
increased  with  their  wealth.  Communities  rose  into  political 
consequence ;  and  we  find  them  successively  admittea  to  the 
diets  and  national  assemblies,  in  all  the  principal  states  of  Eu- 
rope. England  set  an  example  of  this ;  and  though  English 
authors  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  precise  time  when  the  Commons 
of  that  kingdom  were  called  into  Parliament,  it  is  at  least  cer- 
tain that  their  first  admission  belongs  to  the  reign  of  Henry  III. 
(about  1265  or  1266,)  and  that  the  formal  division  of  the  Par- 
liament into  two  houses,  is  as  late  as  the  reign  of  Edward  III." 
France  followed  the  example  of  England ;  the  convocation  of 
the  states,  bv  Philip  the  Fair  (1303,)  on  the  subject  of  his  dis- 

Cutes  with  Pope  Boniface  VIII.,  is  considered  as  the  first  assem- 
ly  of  the  States-general,  composed  of  the  three  orders  of  the 
kingdom.  As  to  Germany,  the  first  diet  in  which  the  cities  of 
the  Empire  appeared  in  the  form  of  a  third  order,  was  that  of 
Spire  (1309,)  convoked  by  the  Emperor  Henry  VII.,  of  the 
house  of  Luxembourg.  Afterwards,  we  find  these  cities  exer- 
cising a  decisive  or  deliberative  voice  at  the  diet  of  Frankfort 
(1344,)  under  Louis  the  Bavarian. 

In  all  these  states,  we  find  the  sovereigns  protecting  more  es- 
pecially those  free  cities  which  aided  them  in  checking  the  de- 
vastations, and  putting  a  stop  to  the  fury  of  private  or  intestine 
wars.  The  most  powerful  of  the  feudal  chiefs,  finding  every 
where  cities  in  a  capacity  to  defend  themselves,  became  less  en- 
terprising in  their  ambition;  and  even  the  nobles  of  inferior 


^. 


HMMMMI 


■■Ha 


f 


OlAfTUT. 

rank  \mtmA  to  reipwt  the  power  of  thoM  eommunitiee.  The 
royal  euthority  wm  thereby  etrenffthened  j  end  the  cities,  netu- 
raflT  incllniiig  to  the  wvereiffM  ihet  protected  them,  ••'*•<»•• 
«  counterpoise  in  the  general  asseinblies,  to  the  power  of  the 
clertry  and  the  noblesse,  and  were  the  means  of  obtaining  those 
subsidiary  supplies  necessary  for  the  exi^ncies  of  the  sUte. 

The  liberty  which  the  inhabitants  of  cities  had  thus  procured 
bv  the  establishment  of  these  communities,  or  corporate  bodies, 
extended  itself  to  the  inhabilanu  of  the  country,  by  way  of  en- 
finnchisemenis.  Various  circumstances  concurred  to  rewler 
the  use  of  these  more  frequent,  after  the  twelfth  century.  The 
sovereigns,  guided  by  the  maxims  of  sound  policy,  set  the  first 
example  of  this  within  their  own  demesnes;  and  they  were 
speedily  imitated  by  the  feudal  lords  and  nobles,  who,  either  out 
ofcourtesy  to  their  sovereigns,  or  to  prevent  the  desertion  of 
their  vassals,  or  acquire  new  dependents,  were  comDelled  to 
jrrnnt  liberty  to  the  one,  and  mitigate  the  servitude  of  the  other. 
The  communities,  or  chartered  cities,  likewise  seconded  and 
promoted  these  enfranchisements,  by  the  protection  which  they 
ffrantcd  to  the  serfs  against  their  feudal  superiors. 

In  Italy,  we  perceive  these  enfranchisements  foilowinpr  as 
an  immediate  consequence  of  the  institution  of  communities. 
The  continual  feuds  thut  arose  among  the  numerous  republics 
which  had  lately  thrown  off  the  yoke  oi  authority,  made  the 
liberty  of  the  serfs  a  measure  absolutely  j.ecessary,  in  order  to 
augment  the  number  of  cities  qualified  to  bear  "m^'jnd  hold 
places  of  trust.     Bonacurso,  Captain  ol  Bologna  (1266.)  pro- 
posed to  his  fellow-citizens,  and  carried  the  law  of  enfranchise- 
ment.    Al!  those  who  hod  serfs  were  obliged  to  present  them 
before  the  Podesta,  or  Captain  of  the  people,  who  affranchised 
them  for  a  certain  sum  or  tax,  which  the  republic  paid  to  the 
owner.     The  feudal  superiors,  findinc  that  these  enfranchise- 
ments had  a  po'-erful  sunport  in  the  liberty  ^^  ^^XlZT^^lr 
were  obliged  either  to  --.Miorate  the  condition  of  their  serfs,  or 

^1n  France!  aSr  the  twelu:.  :ntury,  and  the  reign  of  Louis 
the  Fat,  these  enfranchisemenis  began  to  be  frequent  The  son 
and  successor  of  that  prince,  Louis  VII.,  by  royal  letter  (1180,) 
affranchised  all  the  serfs  which  the  crown  possessed  at  Orleans, 
and  within  f.ve  leagues  of  it.  Louis  X.  passed  a  general  law 
(1315)  for  the  enfranchisement  of  all  serls  be bnging  to  the 
crown.  He  there  made  a  positive  declaration,  that  jZawry  wot 
contrary  to  7ialure,  which  intended  that  all  men  by  btrth  shmld 
be  free  and  equal;  thai,  since  his  Am^rfom  wax  denomtmted 
the  kingdom  of  the  Franks,  or  Freemc7i,  it  appeared  jwt  and 


eomnuniiiM.    Th« 
and  (he  cUim,  mtu- 
cted  them,  served  ■• 
to  (he  power  of  the 
lOS  of  obteining  those 
ncies  of  the  state. 
es  had  thus  procured 
.  or  corporate  bodies, 
untry,  by  way  of  en- 
concurred  to  render 
welfth  century.    The 
id  policy,  set  the  first 
ines;  and  thev  were 
lobles,  who,  eitner  out 
rant  the  desertion  of 
I,  were  compelled  to 
lervitude  of  tne  other, 
(ewine  seconded  and 
)rotection  which  they 
jperiors. 

sements  followinp;  as 
ition  of  communities, 
e  numerous  republics 
L  authority,  made  the 
recessary,  in  order  to 
)  bear  arms,  and  hold 
Bologna  (1266,)  pro- 
le  law  of  enfranchise- 
}liged  to  present  them 
opie,  who  aflranchised 
i  republic  paid  to  the 
tiat  these  enfranchise- 
irty  of  the  free  cities, 
iition  of  their  serfs,  or 

tnd  the  reign  of  Louis 
be  frequent.  The  son 
by  royal  letter  (1180,) 
1  possessed  at  Orleans. 
,  passed  a  general  law 
lerfs  belonging  to  the 
ration,  that  slavery  was 
ill  men  by  birth  should 
dom  was  denomviated 
■it  appeared  just  and 


mioD  IV.    A.  D.  1074—1300. 


181^ 


right  that  tht  fact  should  correspond  teith  the  name.  He  invited, 
at  the  same  time,  all  the  nobility  to  imitate  his  example,  by 
granting  liberty  to  their  serfs.  That  prince  would  have  en- 
nobled the  homage  he  paid  to  nature,  it  the  gift  of  liberty  had 
been  gratuitous  on  his  part ;  but  he  made  it  a  mere  object  of 
finance,  and  to  gratify  those  only  who  could  aflbrd  to  pay  fcr  it ; 
whence  it  happened,  that  enfranchisementn  advsnceU  but  very 
slowljr ;  and  examples  of  it  are  to  be  fuiuul  in  history,  so  late  us 
the  reigii  of  Francis  I. 

In  Germanvi  the  number  of  serfs  diminished  in  like  manner, 
after  the  twelfth  century.  The  crusades,  and  the  destructive 
wars  which  the  Dukes  of  Saxony  and  the  Margraves  of  the 
North  carried  on  with  the  Slavian  tribes  on  the  Elbe  and  the 
Baltic,  having  depopulated  the  northern  and  eastern  parts  of 
Germany,  numerous  colonies  from  Brabant,  the  Netherlands, 
Holland  and  Friesland,  were  introduced  into  these  countries, 
where  they  formed  theinsclve.i  into  estublishinents  or  associa- 
tionn  of  free  cultivators  of  the  s.)il.  From  Lower  Germany  the 
custom  of  eiifrunchiseineiits  extended  to  the  Upper  provinces, 
and  along  the  banlt»  of  the  Rhine.  This  was  encouraged  by 
the  free  cities,  which  not  only  gave  a  welcome  reception  to  the 
(■erfs  who  hud  fled  to  shelter  liienuelves  from  oppression  within 
their  walls,  but  they  even  granted  protection,  and  the  rights  of 
citizenship,  to  those  who  had  settled  within  the  precincts  or 
liberties  of  the  town  ;"*  or  who  continued,  without  changing 
their  habitation,  to  reside  on  the  lands  of  their  feudal  superiors. 
This  spirited  conduct  of  the  free  cities  put  the  nobles  of  Ger- 
many to  the  necessity  of  aiding  and  abetting,  by  degrees,  either 
the  suppression  or  the  mitigation  of  slavery.  They  reimbursed 
themselves  for  the  loss  of  tne  fine  or  tax  which  they  had  been 
in  the  habit  of  levying,  on  the  death  of  their  serfs,  by  an  aug- 
mentation of  the  quit-rent,  or  annual  cess  which  they  exacted 
from  them  on  their  being  aflranchised.  * 

In  the  Low  Countries,  Henry  II.,  duke  of  Brabant  (1218,) 
in  his  last  will,  granted  liberty  to  all  cultivators  of  the  soil ; — 
he  aflTranchised  them  on  the  right  of  mortmain,  and  ordained, 
that,  like  the  inhabitants  of  free  cities,  they  should  be  judged  by 
no  other  than  their  own  magistrates.  In  this  manner,  liberty 
by  degrees  recovered  its  proper  rights.  It  assisted  in  dispelling 
the  clouds  of  ignorance  and  superstition,  and  spread  a  new 
lustre  over  Europe.  One  event  which  contributed  essentially 
to  givo  men  more  exact  notions  on  government  and  jurispru- 
dence, was  the  revival  of  the  Roman  law,  which  bappened 
about  the  time  we  now  speak  of.  The  German  tribes  that  de- 
stroyed the  Western  Empire  in  the  Mh  century,  would  natu- 


190 


mArrit  ▼. 


wHy  detpiM  •  ■yit«m  of  leglsblion,  such  ai  ihtt  of  the  Romans, 
which  neither  accorded  with  the  ferocity  of  their  manneri,  nor 
the  rudenesf  of  their  idea*.  In  coinequence,  the  revolution 
which  occBiioned  the  downfall  of  that  empire,  broucht  ot  the 
same  lime  the  Roman  jurii-prudence  into  desuetude  over  all 
the  Western  world.'"  .     .  ^ 

A  lapse  of  severnl  centurien,  however,  was  required,  to  rec- 
tify men's  ideas  on  the  nature  of  society,  and  to  prepare  them 
for  receiving  the  laws  and  institutions  of  a  civilwcd  and  re- 
fined government.      Such  was  the  general  state  and  condition 
of  political  knowledge,  when  the  foine  of  a  celebrated  civilian, 
called  Imerius,  who  taught  the  law  of  Jnstiman  publicly  nt 
Bologna,  about  the  commencement  of  the  twelfth  century,  nt- 
traded  to  that  academy  the  vouth  of  the  grratcr  nart  of  Eurone. 
There  ihey  devoted  themsclvos  with  nrdour  to  the  study  of  this 
new  science.     The  pupils,  in«lrncted  by  Imerius  and  his  suc- 
cessors, on  returning  home,  and  bring  employed  in  the  tribunsiU 
and  pnblic  offices  of  their  nntivo  country,  gradually  carried  into 
practice  the  principles  which  they  had  imbibed  in  the  school  ot 
Bologna.     Hence,  in  a  short  lime,  and  without  the  direct  inter- 
ference of  the  legislative  authority,  the  law  of  Justinian  wns 
adopted  by  degrees,  as  a  Mibsidiury  law  in  all   the  prinnpnl 
states  of  Europe.     Vorioiis  cirrumstanres  contributed  to  acce- 
lerate the  progress  of  this  revolution.     People  had  felt  for  a 
long  time  the  necessity  of  a  new  legislature,  and  the   insuffi- 
ciency of  their  national  laws.     The  novelty  of  the  Roman 
laws,  as  well  as  their  equity  and  precision,  arrested  the  atten- 
tion of  all  Europe  ;  and  8overeigni»   found  it  their  interest  to 
protect  a  jurisprudence,  whope  maxims  were  so  favourable  to 
royalty  and  monarchical  power,  and  which  served  at  once  to 
strengthen  and  extend  their  authority. 

The  introduction  of  the  Roman  jurisprudence  was  soon  fol- 
lowed by  that  of  the  Canon  law.  The  Popes,  perceiving  the 
rapid  propagation  of  this  new  science,  and  eater  to  arrest  its 
progress,  immediately  set  themselves  to  the  work  of  rnisiirg  that 
vast  and  astonishing  edifice  the  Canon  law,  as  an  engine  to  pro- 
mote the  accomplishment  of  their  own  greatness.  Gralian,  a 
monk  of  Bologna,  encouraged  by  Pope  Eueenius  III.,  compiled 
a  collection  of  Canons,  under  the  title  of  the  Decret,  which  he 
arranged  in  systematic  order,  to  serve  as  an  introduction  to  the 
study  of  that  law.  This  compilation,  extracted  from  different 
authors  who  had  preceded  him,  recommended  itself  to  the  world 
by  its  popular  method,  which  was  adapted  to  the  genius  of  the 
times.  Pope  Eugenius  III.  gave  it  his  approral  m  U58, 
and  ordained  that  it  should  be  read  and  explained  in  the  schoola. 


I  ai  that  of  the  Romans, 
ly  of  their  mannen,  nor 
equence,  the  revolation 
empire,  brought  ot  (hn 
into  detuetude  over  nil 


ty 


r,  was  required,  to  rec* 

d  to  prepare  thpiii 

.  civifixcd  and  re- 

neral  state  and  condition 

of  a  celebrated  civilian, 

f  Jnsiinian  publicly  nt 

the  twelfth  century,  at- 

0  groatcr  part  of  Europe. 

rdour  to  the  study  of  this 

by  imerius  and  liia  sue- 

employed  in  the  tribunals 

ry,  gradually  carried  into 

itiihibed  in  the  school  ot 

wiihoul  the  direct  inter- 

16  law  of  Justinian  wiii 

law  in  oil   the  prinripnl 

iices  contributed  to  acce- 

People  had  felt  for  n 

lyjature,  and  the   insuHi- 

novelly  of  the  Roninn 

vision,  arrested  the  atlen- 

found  it  their  interest  to 

US  were  so  favourable  to 

which  served  at  once  to 

risprudence  was  soon  fol- 
lie  Popes,  perceiving  the 
e,  and  eager  to  arrest  its 
to  the  work  of  rnisiirg  that 
n  law,  as  an  engine  to  pro- 
irn  greatness.  Qralian,  a 
e  Eugenius  III.,  compiled 
i  of  the  Decret,  which  he 
'  as  an  introduction  to  the 
1,  extracted  from  different 
mended  itself  to  the  world 
ipted  to  the  genius  of  the 
It  his  approval  in  llflS, 
1  explained  in  the  school*. 


PitioD  ir.    A.  D.  1074—1300. 


181 


Thia  eoilection  of  Qratian  soon  obtained  a  wido  and  most  suc- 
cessful roreptiou  ;  from  the  schools  it  passed  to  the  public  tri- 
bunals, )j'  I  civil  and  ecclesiastical.  At  length.  Pope  Gregory 
IX.,  in  ii  lation  of  the  Empcroi-  Justinian,  who  had  caused  a 
collectton  of  his  own  statutes,  and  those  of  hi!<  predecoNMor!',  to 
be  motlo  by  Tribonian,  ordered  his  chaplain  Raymond  dc  Pen- 
nafort  lo  compile  and  digest,  in  their  proper  order,  all  the  deci- 
sionr  ol  is  predecesHors,  as  well  as  his  own  ;  lhu«  extending  lo 
uomium  >ractice,  what  had  been  oriL'inally  e.ttiiljlished  but  for 
one  pin  and  for  purliculur  cii.seH.  lie  published  his  collection 
(12!W)  under  the  name  of  Decreinl!<,  with  nn  injunction,  that  it 
.should  be  employed  both  in  the  iribiiiials  and  in  (ho  schoolx. 

If  tins  new  system  of  juri.>*pru(lenie  served  to  extend  the  juris- 
diction,  and  strengthen  the  tcniporal  power  nf  tlie  Popes,  it  did 
not  fuil  at  the  same  time  to  miidiice  h  ilutary  effects  on  the 
governments  and  manners  of  liiirope.  T/ie  peace,  or  truce  of 
(rod,  which  some  bishops  of  France,  in  the  eiovonth  century, 
had  instituted  us  a  check  on  the  unbridled  fury  of  private  quar- 
!■►•!«  and  civil  discord,  wns  estnbli.'ihed,  by  the  Decretals,  into  n 
>,'enerul  law  of  the  church.'*  T/ie  jiirlirinvuls  of  God,  till  then 
u.>ed  in  the  tribunals  of  justice,  trial  by  siiiirje  combat,  by  hot 
iron,  hot  ond  cold  water,  the  cross,  &c.  were  gradually  abolished. 
The  restraints  of  the  Canon  law,  added  lo  ilie  new  information 
which  hail  difTused  its  light  over  the  limnun  mind,  were  instru- 
mental in  rooting  out  practices  which  served  only  to  cherish 
.md  protract  the  ancient  ferocity  of  manners.  The  spirit  of 
order  ond  method  which  prevailed  in  the  new  jurisprudence, 
soon  communicated  itself  to  every  branch  of  legislatiiui  among 
the  nations  of  Europe.  Tlie  feudal  law  was  reduced  to  syste- 
matic order;  and  the  usages  and  cu-toms  of  the  ja-ovinces,  till 
then  local  and  uncertain,  were  colhvied  and  organized  into  a 
regular  form.*' 

Jurisprudence,  having  now  b«!come  a  complicated  science, 
demanded  a  long  and  laborious  course  of  study,  which  could  no 
longer  be  associated  with  the  profession  of  arms.  The  sword 
was  then  obliged  by  degrees  to  abandon  the  courts  of  justice, 
and  give  place  to  the  gown.  A  new  class  of  men  thus  arose, 
that  of  the  law,  who  contributed  by  their  influence  to  repress 
the  overjjrown  power  of  the  nobility. 

The  rapid  progress  which  the  new  jurisprudence  made,  must 
be  ascribed  to  the  recent  foundation  of  universities,  nnd  the  en* 
couragements  which  sovereigns  granted  these  literary  corpora- 
tions. Before  their  establishment,  the  principal  public  schools 
were  those  which  were  attached  either  to  monasteries,  or  cathe- 
dral and  collegiate  churches.    There  were,  however,  only  a  few 


mmmmmm 


139 


CRArrSR  V. 


Thi  .£r,  V  ™  much  coveted  .nd  e«eem.d  «»  «"«»"» 

Bologna  to  the  different  ncademies  of  Europe.    ^J«°'"jy  ."L, 
was  foon  admitted,  as  well  as  n.ed.c,ne ;  «"*  ^'^ese  "tnptete^ 

tKe  four  faculties   as  th^y^ -"  :;;;t;  jtVw\^^^^^^^^^ 
century." 


cities,  sach  u  Borne, 
,.  Tne  sciences  there 
liberal  arte,  viz.  Gram- 
tietic,  Geometry,  Music, 
known  by  the  name  of 
ke  part  of  mathematics, 
ogy  and  Jurisprudence, 
cademic  sciences ;  and 
;o  that  of  Salerno— the 
ered,  towards  the  end  of 

it,  by  any  means,  be  put 
;  which  differ  from  them 
ciences  which  are  pro- 
leged  bodies,  enjoying  a 
n  peculiarly  their  own. 
uvaljwith  the  revival  of 
ion  of  academic  degrees, 
icknovvledged  as  the  re- 
was  also  the  first  that 
certain  solemnities,  doc- 
diplomas  to  those  who 
^.     Pope  Eugenius  III. 
of  Graiian  into  the  aca- 
confer  the  same  degrees 
tomary  in  the  Civil  law. 
i  esteemed  on  account  of 
ives  which  the  sovereign 
ever  contributed  more  to 
e  privileges  and  immuL'i- 
)arossa  conferred  on  them 
called  HeUfita.)     The  ex- 
)llowed  by  the  other  so- 

issed  from  the  school  of 
Europe.  Theology  also 
ne;  and  these  completed 
lied,  of  which  the  univer- 
B  was  the  first  which  com- 
pleted under  the  reign  of 
tained  its  earliest  charter, 
there- an  only  the  univer- 
iouse,  Sidamanca,  Coirobra, 
sir  origin  in  the  thirteenth 


ntioB  vr.    A.  D.  1074— ISOO. 

Tim  downMl  of  the  Imperial  avthority,  and  of  the  house  of 
Hohenstaafen,  and  the  new  power  uaurp«d  hj  the  princes  and 
Sutes  of  the  Bmpira,  occasioned  a  long  senes  of  troubles  in 
Germany,  and  that  frightful  state  of  anarchy,  known  by  the 
name  of  the  Crrand  Interregnum.    Strength  then  triumphed 
over  law  and  right;  the  government  was  altered  from  its  basis; 
and  no  other  means  were  found  to  remedy  this  want  of  public 
security,  than  by  forming  alliancies  and  confederations,  such  as 
that  of  the  Rhine,**    and  the  Hanseatic  League,  which  began 
to  appear  about  this  time  (12S3.)    The  election  of  the  Empe- 
rors, in  which  all  the  princes  and  slates  of  the  empire  had  for- 
merly concurred,  became  then  the  privilege  solelv  of  the  great 
officers  of  the  crown,  who,  towards  the  middle  or  the  thirteenth 
century,  claimed  for  themselves  exclusively  the  right  of  elect- 
ing, and  the  title  of  Electors.**     The  princes  and  states  of  the 
Empire,  anxious  to  confirm  their  growing  power,  souffht  to  pro- 
mota  only  the  feeblest  emperors,  who  were  incapable  of  sup- 
porting the  riffhts  and  prerogatives  of  the  crown.    The  electors, 
in  particular,  had  no  other  object  in  view,  than  to  derive  a  lucra- 
tive traffic  from  elections ;  bargaining  every  time  with  the  can- 
didates for  large  sums,  and  obtaining  grants  or  nortgi^es  of 
such  portions  of  the  Imperial  demesnes  as  suited  their  con- 
venience.   One  only  of  these  weak  emperors,  Rodolph,  Count 
of  Hapsburg  in  Switserland,  (1273)  disappointed  the  expecta- 
tions of  his  electors.     He  repressed  by  force  of  arms,  the  dis- 
orders of  anarchy,  restored  the  laws   and  tribunes  to  their 
pristine  vigour,  and  reconquered  several  of  the  Imperial  domain* 
from  the  usurpers  who  had  seised  them. 

In  consequence  of  the  revolutions  which  we  have  now  detailed, 
we  find  very  important  and  memoraUe  changes  accomplished  in 
the  different  provinces  of  the  Empire.  The  princes  and  States 
of  the  Germanic  body,  regarding  as  their  own  patrimony  the 
provinces  and  fiefs  with  which  they  were  invested,  thought 
themselves  further  authoriaed  to  portion  them  out  among  their 
sons.  The  usage  of  these  partiUons  became  general  after  the 
thirteenth  century ;  and  this  wrought  the  downfall  of  atfme  of 
the  most  powerful  fimulieri,  and  tended  to  multiply  almost  to 
infinity  the  dntdiies,  principalities,  and  earldoms  of  theBmpiic. 
The  Emperors,  fiur  from  condemning  this  practice,  whiidi  by  no 
means  aceoided  with  the  maxims  of  the  fendal  law,  on  the  con- 
trary gave  it  their  countenance,  as  appearing  to  utenf  a  proptt 
instrument  for  hnmUing  the  power  of  the  graadeei,  and  acqi^ 
ring  for  theaMolves  a  preponderating  acthority  in  the  Empiitt. 
The  ancient  dotchies  of  Bavaria  and  Sazonr  o^eneed  a 
new  fvvoltttion  on  the  fall  of  the  powerful  hofiae  of  th9 

VOL.!.  12 


;'».:■■■-■■« 


m 


CHArriB  ▼ 

Guelph*.  wWch  was  deprivwl  of  both  Uiew  datehiw  by  the  Mn- 
2lJ?ofiro»cription  Xh  the  Emperor  F^dfic  I.  P™nou«ced 
MHdnst  iSenry  the  Lion  (1180.)  Duke  of  Barena  end  Saxony. 
lK  first  of  these  datchie8.whichhadformerlybeendi8mero^^^^^^ 
from  the  Margrarate  of  Austria  by  Fredenc  I.  d^SJ')  ""f 
erected  into  a  lutchy  and  fief  holding  immediately  of  the  Em- 
5iJJ,  was  exposed  ti  new  partitions  at  the  time  of  which  tve 
Sow  s^ak.    The  bishoprics  of  Bavaria.  Sliria.  Carinthia,  Car- 
niola.rnd  the  Tyrol,  broke  their  alliance  with  Bavarm;  and  the 
S  of  RatisbonJe,  which  had  been  the  «!«de»",«>f  «»>«  »°"«" 
dukes,  was  declared  immediate,  or  holding  of  the  crown.    It 
was  when  contracted  within  these  new  limits  that  Bavaria  was 
TonfeT^"  by  Frederic  I.  (1 180.)  on  Otho,  Count  of  W.ttelsbach, 
Sn  of  thLriginal  ho,»eof  Bavaria.    This  house  aaerward 
acquired  by  marriage  (1215)  the  Palatinate  of  the  Rhine     It 
wa«  subsequently  divided  into  various  branches,  of  which  the 
two  principal  were  the  PabUne  and  the  Bavarian. 

As  to  the  dutchy  of  Saxony,  which  embraced,  under  the 
Guelphs.  the  greater  part  of  Lower  Germany,  it  completely 
changed  its  circumstances  on  the  decline  of  that  house.     Ber- 
nard  of  Asqjiersleben,  younger  son  oi  Albert  named  the  Bear, 
first  Margrave  of  Brandeoburff,  a  descendant  of  the  Ascanian 
line.  hadlJeen  invested  in  the  lutchy  of  Saxony  bv  Frederic  I. 
(1190.)  but  wfs  found  much  too  feeble  to  support  the  high  rank 
to  which  he  had  been  elevated.    In  consequence,  the  title,  or 
quSSion  to  the  dutchy  of  Saxony  and  the  Electorate   was 
restricted,  under  the  successors  and  descendants  of  that  pnnce, 
to  an  inconsiderable  district,  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Elbe , 
ciied  since  the  Electoral  Circle,  of  ^hich  Wittenberg  was  the 
Mpitol.  The  princes  of  Pomerania  and  Mecklenbarg,  tlie  Counts 
7ho  stein  and  Westphalia,  and  the  "ty  of  Lubeck.  took  advan- 
tttre  of  this  circumstance  to  revoU  from  the  authority  of  the  Duke 
•TSaxony.  and  render  themselves  immediate.     A  P«t  of  West- 
vhalia  was  erected  into  a  distinct  dutchy.  in  favour  of  the  Arch- 
Eshop  of  Cologne,  who  had  seconded  the  Emperor  m  his  schemes 
Svengeance^nst  the  Guelphic  prmces     TJt«  »*tgr  h»use, 
whose  vast  po^ssions  had  extended  from  the  AdnaUc  Sea  to  the 
Sdtic  and  (STNorthem  Ocean,  retained  nothing  more  of  Us 
•neient  tplendoor  than  the  free  fauida  which  >tpo«»~!»*  "  ^T'l 
s£^y.  W  which  the  emperor  Fredwie  It  (1836)  converted 
fatoaiutchy,  and  immed&te  fief  of  the  empire,  m  fcvour  of 
SSo  £  Intot.  grvidson  of  Henry  the  Lion,  and  the  new 
fiMmdcr  of  dw  Hooae  of  Branawick.  ,     .     .      _  . 

The  eitiaction  of  the  House  of  Hohenetwdw  having  oeca- 
arMttey  io  the datchiea  of  Suahia and  Franconia.  the 


mm»m,iieaiiMmmw3smsas'.mi^fmmtTjim^. 


dntchiet  liy  the  aen* 

r  Frederic  I.  pronounced 

of  Baveria  and  Saxony. 

merly  been  dismembered 

Frederic  I.  (1156.)  and 

immediately  of  the  Em- 

the  time  of  which  we 

Stiria,  Carinthia,  Car- 

;e  with  Bavarin ;  and  the 

residence  of  the  ancient 

ding  of  the  crown.    It 

limits  that  Bavaria  was 

10,  Count  of  Wittelsbach, 

This  house  afterwards 

itinate  of  the  Rhine.    It 

I  branches,  of  which  the 

kc  Bavarian. 

ch  embraced,  under  the 
Germany,  it  completely 
ine  of  that  house.  Ber- 
Albert  named  the  Bear, 
cendant  of  the  Ascanian 
of  Saxony  by  Frederic  I. 
e  to  support  tne  high  rank 
:onsequence,  the  title,  or 
and  the  Electorate,  was 
escendants  of  that  prince, 
on  both  sides  of  the  Elbe ; 
vhich  Wittenberg  was  the 
1  Mecklenburg,  the  Counts 
ity  of  Lubeck,  took  advan- 
n  the  authority  of  the  Duke 
nediate.  A  part  of  West- 
:hy,  in  favour  of  the  Arch- 
he  Emperor  in  his  schemes 
rinees.  This  latter  house, 
rom  the  Adriatic  Sea  to  the 
kined  nothing  mors  of  its 
rhich  itpoasessed  in  Lower 
lerie  IT.  (1836)  converted 
'  the  em^re,  in  fiivour  of 
y  the  Lion,  and  the  new 

[ohenatavliin  having  oeea- 
Sualm  and  Ftanconia,  the 


naioD  !▼>    A.  D.  1074 — 1300. 


186 


difieient  statea  of  these  provinces,  both  secular  and  eccleaiaatt* 
cal,  found  means  to  rentier  themselves  also  immediate,  (12681) 
A  number  of  cities  which  had  belonged  to  the  domains  of  the 
ancient  dukes,  were  raised  to  the  rank  of  free  and  imperial 
cities;  and  the  Houses  of  Baden,  Wurteraberg,  Hohen-2SoQem, 
and  Furstenberg,  date  their  celebrity  firom  this  period.  The 
death  of  the  anti-emperor,  Henry  le  Raspon  (1247,)  last  land- 
grave of  Thuringia,  gave  rise  to  a  long  war  between  the  Mar- 
graves of  Misnia  and  the  Dukes  of  Brabant,  who  mutually 
contested  that  succession.  The  former  advanced  an  Expecta- 
tive,  or  deed  of  Reversion  of  the  Emperor  Frederic  II.,  as  well 
as  the  claims  of  Jutta,  sister  of  the  last'landgrave ;  and  the  others 
maintained  these  of  Sophia,  daughter  of  the  langrave  Loui^i 
elder  brother  and  predecessor  of  Henry  le  Raspon.  At  length, 
by  a  partition  which  took  place  (1264,)  Thuringia,  properly  so 
called,  was  made  over  to  the  house  of  Misnia ;  ana  Henry  of 
Brabant,  surnamed  the  In&nt,  son  of  Henry  II.  Duke  of  Bra- 
bant, and  Sophia  of  Thuringia,  was  aecured  in  the  possession  of 
Hesise,  and  became  the  founder  of  a  new  dynasty  of  landgraves — 
those  of  the  House  of  Hesse.   ' 

The  ancient  dukes  of  Austria,  of  the  House  of  Bamberg,  hav- 
ing become  extinct  with  Frederic  the  Valiant  (1346,)  the  suc- 
cession of  that  dutcby  was  keenly  contested  between  the  niece 
and  the  sisters  of  the  last  duke ;  who,  though  females,  could  lay 
claim  to  it,  in  virtue  of  the  privilege  granted  by  the  emperor 
Frederic  Barbarossa.  Ottocar  II.,  son  of  Wenceslaus,  king  of 
Bohemia,  took  advantage  of  these  trot;bles  in  Austria,  to  possess 
himself  of  that  province  (1251.)  He  obtained  the  investiture  of 
it  (1262)  from  Richard,  son  of  John  king  of  England,  who  had 
purchased  the  title  of  Emperor  at  a  vast  expense ;  but  Rodolph 
of  Hapsbourg,  treating  him  as  a  usurper,  made  war  upon  him, 
defeated  and  slew  him  in  a  battle  which  was  fought  (1278)  at 
Marchfeld,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Vienna  The  dutchies  of 
Austria,  Stiria,  Carinthia,  and  Carniola,  being  then  detached 
from  the  kingdom  . :'  Bohemia,  were  declared  vacant,  and  de- 
volved to  the  Empire.  The  investiture  of  these  the  Emperor 
conferred  (1282)  on  Albert  and  Rodolph,  his  own  sons.  Al- 
bert, the  eldest  of  these  princes,  who  was  afterwards  Emperor, 
became  the  founder  of  the  Hapsbourg  dynasty  of  Austria. 

In  Italy,  a  great  number  of  republics  arose  about  the  end  of 
the  eleventh,  or  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century.  These  re- 
publics, though  they  Iiad  cast  off  the  Imperial  authority,  and 
claimed  to  themselves  the  rights  of  sovereignty,  protested,  never- 
theless, their  fealty  to  the  Emperor,  whom  they  affieed  to  recog* 
niae  as  their  supreme  head.    The  Emperors,  Henry  V.,  Lo 


T—  die  Sum,  ud  Connd  lU.,  mw  ihenMlvw  sompsUed  to 
tslMSte  aa  nninNUioa  which  they  were  too  feoble  to  reprau. 
Bat  Frederic  BeiterooM  being  detennined  to  reatote  the  royalty 
•ritdy  to  its  eneient  sj^endoor,  led  •  powerfaj  my  into  that 
Unodom  (llfiB ;)  end  in  a  diet  which  be  MaemMed  on  Uie  plains 
of  Roncafflia,  in  the  territory  of  Placentia,  he  cauaed  a  strict  in- 
Toatiffation  to  be  made  by  the  lawyers  of  Bolopia,  into  the  rights 
on  which  he  foanded  his  pretensions  to  the  titla  of  King  of  Italy. 
The  opposition  which  the  execution  of  the  decrees  of  that  diet 
met  with  on  the  part  of  the  Milanese,  induced  the  Emperor  to 
undertake  the  siege  of  theircity.  He  made  himself  master  of  it 
in  lie2,ra»ed  it  to  the  foundation,  and  dispersed  the  inhabitants. 
This  chastisement  of  the  Milanese  astonished  the  Italians, 
hot  without  abating  their  courage.  They  afterwards  took  ad- 
▼antage  of  the  reverses  of  the  Emperor,  and  the  schism  which 
had  arisen  in  the  Romish  Church,  to  forma  league  w.ih  the 

eincipal  cities  of  Lombardy  (1167,)  into  which  they  drew  the 
ing  of  the  Two  SiciUes,  as  well  as  Pope  Alexander  III.,  whom 
the  Emperor  treated  as  a  schismatic.     The  city  of  Milan  was 
rebuilt  in  consequence  of  this  league ;  as  also  that  of  Alexan- 
dria, called  della  Paglia.    The  war  was  long  protracted ;  but 
the  Emperor  being  abandoned  by  Henry  the  Lion,  Duke  of  Ba- 
Ttria  and  Saxony,  the  most  powerful  of  his  vassals,  received  a 
defeat  at  Lignano,  which  obliged  him  to  make  an  accomrooda- 
Uen  with  Pope  Alexander  III.,  and  to  sign,  at  Venice,  a  treaty 
of  six  years  with  the  confederate  cities  (1177.)     This  treaty  was 
afterwards  converted,  at   Constance,  into  a  definitive  peace 
(1183;)  by  virtue  of  which,  the  cities  of  Italy  were  guaranteed 
in  the  forms  of  government  they  had  adopted,  as  well  as  in  the 
exercise  of  the  regalian  rights  which  they  had  acquired,  whether 
hv  usage  or  prescription.     The  Emperor  reserved  for  himself 
?^e  investiture  of  the  consuls,  the  oath  of  allegiance,  which  was 
to  be  renewed  every  ten  years,  and  all  appeals,  in  civil  cases, 
wfawe  the  sum  exceeded  the  value  of  twenty-five  imperial  livres, 
(■bout  IfiOO  franca.)  ,r.    j    •    ,       au  • 

The  Emperor  Frederic  II.,  grandson  of  Frederic  I.,  and  heir, 
m  right  of  hia  mother,  to  the  kingdoin  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  made 
new  efforts  to  restore  the  orerogatives  of  the  Empire  m  Italy. 
But  the  cities  of  Lombardy  renewed  their  league,  into  which 
Htn  drew  Pope  Oregory  IX.  (1286.)  whose  dignity  and  power 
weald  be  endangered  if  the  Emperor,  being  poeaessor  of  the 
Two  Sicilies,  should  succeed  in  conquering  the  cities  of  Lorn- 
btodv.  The  war  which  enmied  (1336,)  was  long  and  Woody. 
*nie  Popea  Oregory  IX.  and  Innocent  IV.,  went  so  far  as  to 
pmA  up  a  enaaade  against  the  Emperor,  ai  if  he  had  been  •■ 


-. — .  ■..^.^.....^..^ -J.^.». 


t.^^*/Knf.iit^m^' 


leuMlvM  eomp«ned  to 

too  feoUe  to  reproM. 

to  mtoro  the  royalty 

iworfol  amy  into  that 

asaembied  on  the  plains 

ia,  he  cauaed  a  strict  in- 

Bologna,  into  the  rights 

'  e  titio  of  Kine  of  Italy. 

the  decrees  of  that  diet 

nduced  the  Emperor  to 

ade  himself  master  of  it 

ispersed  the  inhabitants. 

astonished  the  Italians, 

ley  afterwards  took  ad- 

and  the  schism  which 

form  a  league  with  the 

to  which  they  drew  the 

le  Alexander  III.,  whom 

The  city  of  Milan  was 

as  also  that  of  Alexan- 

as  long  protracted ;  but 

y  the  Lion,  Duke  of  Ba- 

i  his  vassals,  received  a 

to  make  an  accommoda- 

rtign,  at  Venice,  a  treaty 

(1177.)     This  treaty  was 

into  a  definitive  peace 

of  Ital  V  were  guaranteed 

dopled,  as  well  as  in  the 

ey  had  acquired,  whether 

eror  reserved  for  himself 

of  allegiance,  which  was 

11  appeals,  in  civil  cases, 

irenty-five  imperial  livres, 

i  of  Frederic  I.,  and  heir, 
f  the  Two  Sicilies,  made 
I  of  the  Empire  in  Italy, 
their  league,  into  which 
whose  dignity  and  power 
,  being  poMessor  of  the 
wring  the  cities  of  Lom> 
I,)  was  long  and  bloody. 
It  IV.,  wont  so  far  as  to 
Tor,  as  if  he  had  been  m 


mwD  vr.    A.  o.  1074 — 1900. 


Wf 


infidel ;  i^ile  that  unfortonate  prince,  aAar  the  moat  conrageow 
and  indefatigaUa  eflbrts,  had  the  mortification  to  aee  hia  troopa 
once  more  mseomfited  by  the  forces  of  the  League. 

The  cities  of  Italv  were  no  sooner  delivered  from  the  tenor 
of  the  Emperors,  tnan  they  let  loose  their  fury  against  each 
other ;  impelled  by  the  rage  of  conquest,  and  torn  by  the  inter- 
nal  factions  of  the  Guelphs  and  the  Ohibellines,  as  well  as  by 
the  contests  which  had  arisea  between  the  noblesse  and  the  free 
cities.  The  partisans  of  the  nobles  in  these  cities,  were  strength- 
ened by  the  very  measures  which  had  been  taken  to  humble 
them.  The  chartered  towns  by  destroying  that  multitude  of 
seignories,  earldoms,  and  marquisates  with  which  Lombardy 
swarmed  before  the  twelfth  century,  and  by  incorporating  them 
with  their  own  territories,  obliged  the  deserted  nobles  and  gran* 
dees  to  seek  au  establishment  within  their  walls.  These  latter* 
finding  their  partisans  united  and  powerful,  soon  attempted  to 
seize  the  government ;  and  hence  arose  an  interminable  sourcn 
of  civil  discord,  which  ended  with  the  loss  of  liberty  in  the  p<  ater 
part  of  these  communities. 

To  arrest  these  evils,  and  put  a  check  to  the  ambition  of  the 
powerful  citizens,  they  adopted  the  plan  of  intrusting  the  gov- 
ernment to  a  single  magistrate,  to  be  called  the  Podeita,  who 
should  be  chosen  in  the  neighbouring  cities.  This  scheme  was 
but  a  palliative  rather  than  a  remedy ;  and  in  order  to  guarantee 
themselves  from  the  oppressioa  of  tbe  nobles,  the  corporations 
of  several  cities  graduuly  adopted  the  plan  of  conferring  a  sort 
of  dictatorship  on  one  of  the  powerful  citizens,  or  on  some  prince 
or  nobleman,  even  though  he  were  a  stranger,  under  the  title  of 
Captain ;  hoping,  in  this  way,  to  succeed  in  re-establishing 
peace  and  order.  These  chiefs  or  captains  contrived,  in  process 
of  time,  to  render  absolute  and  perpetual,  an  authority  which  at 
first  was  temporary,  and  only  granted  on  certain  conditions. 
Hence  the  origin  of  several  new  independent  sovereignties  which 
were  formed  in  Italy  during  the  course  of  the  fourteenth  century. 

Venice  and  Genoa  at  that  time  eclipsed  all  the  republics  of 
Italy,  by  the  flourishing  state  of  their  navigation  and  commerce. 
The  origin  of  the  former  of  these  cities  is  generally  dated  as  far 
back  as  the  invasion  of  the  Huns  under  Attila  (452.)  The  cru- 
elty of  these  barbarians  having  spread  terror  and  flight  over  the 
whole  country,  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  ancient  Venetia,  took 
refuge  in  the  isles  and  lagoons  on  the  borders  of  the  Adriatic 
Gulf ;  and  there  laid  the  foundation  of  the  city  of  Venice,  which, 
whether  we  regard  the  singularity  of  its  construction,  or  the 
splendour  to  which  it  rose,  deserves  to  be  numbered  among  the 
wonders  of  the  world.    At  first  its  government  was  popular,  and 

12* 


■ill  nil 


nUPTBB  V. 


Mf. 


dtauoisteNd  W  «  b«nch  of  tribane*  whote  poww  wm  arnintl. 
Thb  iittaioM  which  mom  among  theie  yowly  •Apninwtwtow, 
oc^iooed  Um  .lecUon  of  a  chief  (697.)  who  took  *•  ud.  of 
i^ko  or  Dogo.    Thia  dignity  was  for  hfe,  and  depmided  on  the 
Mfirases  of  the  community ;  but  he  exercised  noTerthelesa  the 
riffhu  of  Borereignty,  and  it  was  not  till  aftwr  a  long  course  ot 
time  that  his  authority  was  gradually  abridged ;  and  the  gorern- 
ment.  which  had  been  monarchical,  became  again  democratical. 
Venice,  which  from  its  birth  was  a  commercial  cit^  enjoyed 
in  the  middle  ages  nearly  the  same  renown  which  Tyre  had 
among  the  trading  cities  of  antiquity.    The  commencement  of 
it!  ffiandeur  may  be  dated  from  the  end  of  the  tenth  century, 
and  uuder  the  magistracy  of  the  Doge  Peter  Urseolo  I  .,  whom 
the  Venetians  regard  as  the  true  founder  of  their  state  (»TO.) 
From  the  Greek  emperors  he  obtained  for  them  an  entire  liberty 
and  immunity  of  commerce,  in  all  the  ports  of  that  empire ;  and 
he  procured  them  at  the  same  time  several  very  important  ad- 
vantaires,  by  the  treaties  which  he  concluded  with  the  emperor 
Otho  III.  and  with  the  Caliphs  of  Egypt.     The  vast  increase  of 
their  commerce,  inspired  these  republicans  with  a  desire  to  ex- 
tend the  contracted  bounds  of  their  territory.     One  of  their  first 
conquests  was  the  maritime  cities  of  Istna,  as  well  as  those  of 
Dalmatla :  both  of  which  occurred  under  the  magistracy  of  Peter 
Uweolo  II.,  and  in  the  year  997.     They  were  obliged  to  make 
a  surrender  of  the  cities  of  Dalmatia,  by  the  emperors  of  the 
East,  who  regarded  these  cities  as  dependencies  of  their  empire ; 
whUe  the  kings  of  Croatia  and  Dalmatia  also  laid  claim  to  ihem. 
Croatia  having  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Kings  of  Hungary, 
about  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century,  these  same  cities  became 
a  perpetual  source  of  troubles  and  wars  between  the  Kings  ol 
Hunrary  and  the  Republic  of  Venice  ;  and  it  was  not  till  the 
fifteenth  century  that  the  Republic  found  means  to  confirm  its 
authoritv  in  Dalmatia.  .     ■,    r  t 

The  Venetians  having  become  parties  in  the  famous  League 
of  Lombardy,  in  the  eleventh  century,  contributed  by  their  ef- 
forts, to  render  abortive  the  vast  projects  of  the  Emperor  t  rede- 
ric  I.  Pope  Alexander  III.,  as  a  testimony  «/ his  gratitude, 
granted  them  the  sovereignty  of  the  Hadnatic  (1177,)«and  thw 
Srcumstance  gave  rise  to  the  singular  ceremony  of  annuaUy 
marryini;  this  sea  to  the  Doge  of  Venice.  The  aggrandizement 
ol  this  republic  was  greatly  accelerated  by  the  crusades,  espe- 
eially  theWwA  (1204,)  which  was  followed  by  the  dismem- 
berment of  the  Greek  empire.  The  Venetians,  who  had  joined 
diis  crusade,  obtained  for  their  portion  several  cities  and  ports 
in  DaUnatia*  Albania,  Greece  and  the  Morea ;  as  also  the  Islands 


M  poww  wia  annaal. 
yMurly  adminutnitON. 

who  took  the  title  of 
,  and  depended  on  the 
deed  nevertheleae  the 
after  a  long  course  ot 
dged ;  and  the  gorem- 
ne  again  demoeratical. 
mmernial  city,  enjoyed 
own  which  Tyre  had 

he  commencement  of 

of  the  tenth  century, 
eter  Urseulo  II.,  whom 
»  of  their  state  (992.) 
r  them  an  entire  liberty 
>rt8  of  that  empire ;  and 
sral  very  important  ad- 
uded  with  the  emperor 

The  vast  increase  of 

ins  with  a  desire  to  ex- 

tory.     One  of  their  first 

tria,  as  well  as  those  of 

the  magistracy  of  Peter 

V  were  obliged  to  make 

by  the  emperors  of  the 

dencies  of  their  empire ; 

1  also  laid  claim  to  ihem. 

the  Kings  of  Hungary, 

hese  same  cities  became 

rs  between  the  Kings  of 

and  it  was  nut  till  the 

nd  means  to  confirm  its 

8  in  the  famous  League 
contributed  by  their  ef> 
B  of  the  Emperor  Frede- 
imony  of  his  gratitude, 
idriatic  (1177,)**  and  this 
ir  ceremony  of  annually 
s.  The  aggrandizement 
d  by  the  crusades,  espe- 
tUowed  by  the  dismem- 
sneticms,  who  had  joined 
I  several  cities  and  ports 
[orea ;  as  also  the  Islands 


miOD  IT.    A.  o.  1074—1300. 

df  Corfu,  Cephaloaia,  and  Candia  or  Crete.  At  length,  towaida 
the  end  of  t&e  thirteenth  rentuir,  this  republic  aaainaed  the  pe< 
euUar  form  of  govenunent  which  it  retained  till  the  day  of  ita 
deatrOction.  In  the  earlier  ams  ita  constitation  was  democratic, 
and  the  power  of  the  Doge  fimite^.  by  a  jjfiand  council,  whkh 
was  chosen  annually  from  among  the  diiierent  classes  of  the 
citiiens,  by  electora  named  by  the  people.  As  these  forms  gave 
occasion  to  troubles  and  intestine  commotions,  the  Doge  Pietro 
Qradenigo,  to  remove  all  cause  of  discontent  in  future,  passed 
a  law  (129i9,)  which  abrogated  the  custom  of  annual  elections, 
and  fixed  irrevocably  in  their  office  all  those  who  then  sat  in 
the  grand  council,  and  this  to  descend  to  their  posterity  foi 
ever.  The  hereditary  aristocracy  thus  introduced  at  Venice, 
did  not  fail  to  excite  the  diswontent  of  those  whose  families  this 
new  law  had  excluded  from  the  government ;  and  it  was  this 
which  afterwards  occasioned  various  insunections,  of  which 
that  of  Tiepolo  (1310)  is  the  most  remarkable.  The  partisans 
of  the  ancient  government,  and  those  of  the  new,  attempted  to 
decide  the  matter  by  a  battle  in  the  city  of  Venice.  Tiepolo 
and  his  party  were  defeated,  and  Querini,  one  of  the  chiefs, 
was  killed  in  the  action.  A  commission  of  ten  members  was 
nominated  to  inform  against  the  accomplices  of  this  secret  con- 
spiracy.  This  commission,  which  was  meant  to  be  but  tem- 
porary, was  afterwards  declared  perpetual;  and,  under  the 
name  of  the  Council  of  Ten,  became  one  of  the  most  formida- 
ble supports  of  the  aristocracy. 

The  city  of  (>enoa,  like  that  of  Venice,  owed  her  prosperity 
to  the  progress  of  her  commerce,  which  she  extended  to  the 
Levant,  Constantinople,  Syria,  and  Egypt.  Governed  at  first 
by  Consuls,  like  the  rest  of  the  Italian  states,  she  afterwards 
(1190)  chose  a  foreign  Podesta  or  governor,  to  repress  the  vio- 
lence of  faction,  and  put  a  check  on  the  ambition  of  the  nobles. 
This  governor  was  afterwards  made  subordinate  to  a  Captain  ox 
the  people,  whom  the  Genoese  chose  for  the  first  time  in  1267, 
without  being  able  yet  to  fix  their  government,  which  ex- 
perienced frequent  variations  before  assuming  a  settled  and 
permanent  form.  These  internal  divisions  of  the  Genoese  did 
not  impede  the  progress  of  their  commerce  and  their  marine. 
The  crusades  of  the  12th  and  13th  centuries,  the  powerful  suc- 
cours which  these  republicans  gave  to  the  crusaders,  and  to  the 
Greeks,  as  well  as  the  treaties  which  they  concluded  with  the 
Moorish  and  African  princes,  procured  them  considerable  esta- 
blishments in  the  Levant,  and  also  in  Asia  and  Africa.  Cafla, 
a  famous  seaport  on  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  port  of  Azoph,  the 
ancient  Tanais,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Don,  belonged  to  them ; 


MM 


I 


HQ  aurrtB  v. 

ud  •erred  m  entwpoU  for  their  commerce  with  China  end  the 
SdiJ,rSmyma  iTA-ia  Minor.  -..Iw  the  itttarb.  of  Pe~ 
and  Geleu  at  Con.tantinople.  and  the  lelet  of  Scio.  Metelin 
Sd  Tinedo^  in  the  ArclSpeWo,  were  »«»•*.?  .^f^JSji^ 
Omk  emperors.  The  kinge  ofCypnu  were  Aeir  mhutanee. 
The  Greek  end  German  emperors,  the  kings  of  SieUy,  Ces- 
UUe  ^rArragon.  and  the  S«>n.  of  Egypt,  mloudysooght 
Seir  alliance7and  the  protection  of  their  muine.  Encouraged 
bl  twTuwesses.  they  form«l  a  con.iderrf,le  territory  on  Ae 
cJntiJent  of  Italy,  after  the  12th  century,  of  which  nothing  but 
a  fnurment  now  remains  to  them.  •  j.v-..-u««ii   . 

oSoa  h«l  at  that  time,  in  it-  immedmte  "•^J»«A«^;^ 
danirerous  rival  of  u  power  and  greatness.     Ihis  rival  was 
pSP  a  flourishinir  repubUc  on  the  coast  of  Tuscany,  which 
Sr^  iu  pr^^X  eSfrely  to  the  increase  of  iu  commerce  a..d 
mrini    '^Thrproiimity  o'f  these  two  states-Ae  ''""l^  »f 
SeS  J^ew.  anS  their  Interest—the  desire  of  conquesl-and 
he  command  of  the  sea.  which  both  «f  ^J£m  Sl^'aS  id 
marked  jealousy  between  them,  and  made  them  the  n'tuf  «^^ 
S«affenemies  of  each  other.     One  of  the  pnnc'PJ  »«ii 
ecS  of  dispute  was  the  possession  of  Corsica  and  SardiniajJ' 
ffih  the  two  rTublics  contested  at  the  point  of  the  »word. 
dter  having,  by  means  of  their  combined  force,  expe  led  Ae 
Mows,  towSd  the  middle  of  the  e  eventh  centurv.    Pisa,  on- 
SnalW  superior  to  Genoa  in  maritime  •"•"K*' .fXwrtho 
L  the  empire  of  the  Mediterranean.  ^^\^;^^''^Xj^^^^ 
Genoese  to  appear  within  those  seas  with  their  ships  of  war. 
Thr,  va Iry  nourished  the  animosity  o   the  two  '«?««'"•  •»J 

indered  i/implacable.  Hence  a  <=<>"^X"  J  AHnileTSo 
hnatiHties  which  were  renewed  incessantly  for  the  space  oi  -wu 
irs.  ^d  onlTtermina^  in  1290 ;  when,  by  the  conqu^t  of 
BbL  and  the  destruction  ef  the  ports  of  Pisa  and  Leghorn, 
Ae  Genoese  effected  the  ruin  of  the  shipping  and  commerce  of 

*'LolT£Co3-sedby  the  Norman  p^^^^^^^ 
of  Dutehv  and  Comt^,bec«me  the  seat  of  a  new  kingdom  in  the 
e  eventh  centurv-that  of  the  two  Sicilies.  On  the  extinction 
of  Ihe  Dukes  o^f  Apulia  and  Calabria,  descendants  of  Robert 
1  s^rd.  Roger  son  of  Roger,  Count  of  Sicily,  and  sovej.gn 
S-hSrd!  united  the  dominions  of  the  two  branches  of  the 
?Iormin  d^nisT  1127  ;)  and  being  desirous  of  procunng  for 
himTeinhe  rS  d  gnity  he  attached  to  his  interest  the  W 
none  Anaclelus  II.,  who  invested  him  with  royalty  by  a  bul 
fl^trwtch.  however,  he  too^"- .^^rr'J^i^ir'?;;^ 
right  and  an  annual  tribute  to  the  Church  of  Rome.     Ihw 


I 


«  with  China  and  the 
>  the  sobarbe  of  Fere 
ilea  of  Scio,  Metelin 
ceded  to  them  by  the 
were  their  tributaries, 
kings  of  Sicily.  Cas- 
ypt,  jealously  sought 
marine.  Encouraged 
erable  territory  on  the 
,  of  which  nothing  but 

iate  neighbourhood,  a 
DOSS.     This  rival  was 
ut  of  Tuscany,  which 
se  of  its  commerce  and 
ates — Uie  similarity  of 
isire  of  conquest — and 
them  desired,  created  a 
e  them  the  natural  and 
e  of  the  principal  sub- 
Corsica  and  Sardinia," 
be  point  of  the  sword, 
led  force,  expelled  the 
ith  century.    Pisa,  ori- 
Btrength,  disputed  with 
id  haughtily  forbade  the 
?ith  their  ships  of  war. 
r  the  two  republics,  and 
inual  source  of  mutual 
iitly  for  the  space  of  200 
rhen,  by  the  conquest  of 
of  Pisa  and  Leghorn, 
lipping  and  commerce  of 

in  princes,  under  the  title 
of  a  new  kingdom  in  the 
ilies.  On  the  extinction 
I,  descendants  of  Robert 
of  Sicily,  and  sovereign 
■  the  two  branches  of  the 
lesirous  of  procuring  for 
to  his  interest  the  Anti- 
i\  with  royalty  by  a  bull 
c  to  reserve  the  territorial 
Church  of  Rome.    This 


mioo  IV.    A.  n*  1074—1300. 


141 


■rinee  reeflived  the  crown  of  Pklenno  from  the  hands  of  a  car- 
dinal, whom  the  pope  had  deputed  for  the  exprees  purpoee.    On 
the  death  of  the  Emperor  Lothaire,  he  succeeded  in  dispoesess- 
ing  the  Prince  of  Capua,  and  subduing  the  dutchy  of  Naples 
(1139 ;)  thus  completihg  the  conquest  of  all  that  is  now  deno- 
minated the  kingdom  of  Naples.    William  II.,  grandson  of 
Roger,  was  the  principal  support  of  Pope  Alexander  III. ;  and 
of  the  famous  League  of  Lombardy  formed  against  the  Empe- 
ror Frederic  Barborossa.     The  mole  line  of  the  Norman  princes 
having  become  extinct  in  William  II.,  the  kingdom  of  the  Two 
Sicilies  passed  (1180)  to  the  House  of  Hohenstaufen,  by  the 
marriage  which  the  Emperor  Henry  IV.,  son  of  irredenc  Bor- 
barossa,  contracted  with  the  Princess  Constance,  aunt  and  here- 
trix  of  the  lost  king.     Henry  maintained  the  rights  of  his  wife 
against  the  usurper  Tancred,  and  transmitted  this  kinadom  to 
his  son  Frederic  II.,  who  ocquired  by  his  marriage  with  Jolande, 
daughther  of  John  de  Brienne,  titular  King  of  Jerusalem,  the 
utles  and  arms  of  this  latter  kingdom.     The  efforts  which  Fre- 
deric mnde  to  annihilate  the  League  of  Lombardy,  and  confirm 
his  own  authority  in  luily,  drew  down  upon  him  the  persecution 
of  the  court  of  Rome,  who  taking  advantage  of  the  minority  of 
the  young  Conradin,  grandson  of  Frederic  II.,  wrested   the 
crown  of  the  two  Sicilies  from  this  rival  house,  which  alone 
was  able  to  check  its  ambitious-projects.     Malnfroi,  natural  son 
of  Frederic  II.,  disgusted  with  playing  the  part  of  tutor  to  the 
young  Conradin,  in  which  capacity  he  at  first  acted,  caused  him- 
self to  be  proclaimed  and  crowned,  at  Palermo,  King  of  the  Two 
Sicilies,  (1258.)    The  Popes  Urban  IV.,  and  Clement  IV.,  dread- 
ing the  genius  and  talents  of  this  prince,  made  an  offer  of  that 
kingdom  to  Charles  of  Anjou,  Count  of  Provence,  and  brother  of 
St.  Louis.     Clement  IV.  granted  the  investiture  of  it  (1265)  to 
him  and  his  descendants,  male  and  female,  on  condition  of  his 
doing  fealty  and  homage  to  the  Holy  See,  and  presenting  him 
annually  with  a  white  riding  horse,  and  a  tribute  of  eight  million 
ounces  of  gold.     Charles,  after  being  crowned  at  Rome,  marched 

Sninst  Mninfroi,  wi  h  an  army  chiefly  composed  of  crusaders, 
e  defeated  that  prince,  who  was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Bene- 
vento  (1266,)  which  was  soon  after  followed  by  the  reduction  of 
the  two  kingdoms.  One  rival  to  Charles  still  survived,  the 
young  Conradin,  the  lawful  heir  to  the  throne  of  his  uceetors. 
Charfes  vanquished  him  also,  two  years  afterwards,  m  the  plaina 
of  Tagliacoxao ;  and  having  made  him  prisoner,  together  with 
his  Touna  friend  Frederic  of  Austria,  he  caused  both  of  these 
nrii^  to  be  beheaded  at  Naples  (20th  October  IMS.) 
Chariea  did  not  long  enjoy  his  new  dignity.    White  be  waa 


oumi  r. 


wouriag  to  nndwtdc*  « t nii^le  agunst  Michael  Pfctaologo* 
KSSSllS  princ  who  h»l  expelW  the  UUn.  from  Cooeun 
rin^pSrhe  h.^  the  mortification  to  we  b  mwlf  {JVO."-;^» 
Sicily,  on  the  occasion  of  the  famous  Sici/wn  l'«V«'»  (™j 
Thii  eront,  which  is  generallv  regaled  as  the  w««l«  of  •con- 
spiracy, olinned  with  «eat  aadres.  by  a  JwUeinan  of  S«Jen.o, 
nWXhnde  ProrlSa,  appears  to  hare  been  but  the  sudden 
effect  of  an  insurrection,  occasioned  by  the  arersion  of  the  S  ci- 
Hans  to  the  French  yolce.    During  the  hour  of  Tespers,  on  the 
rond  day  of  Easter  (30th  March.)  when  the  inhabitants  of 
pSmo  were  on  their  way  to  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
situated  at  some  distance  from  the  town,  it  h»PP«n««»  that  a 
Frenchman,  named  Drouette,  had  offered  a  P"'«^„"»f;°  » 
Sicilian  woman :  hence  a  quorrei  arose,  which  drew  on  a  gene- 
«1  insunection  at  Palermo.     All  the  French  who  were  in  he 
citv  or  the  neighbourhood  were  massacred,  with  the  exception 
ofUe  gSntleman  from  Provence,  called  Will  am  Porcellet.  who 
had  conciliated  all  heorts  by  his  virtues.     This  revol  tgrodual  V 
extended  to  the  other  Sicilian  cities.     Every  where  he  French 
were  put  to  death  on  the  spot.     Messina  was  the  last  tha  cangh 
the  infection;  but  there  the  revolution  d.d  "oMake  plnceul 
thirty  days  after  the  same  event  o»  Palermo,  (29ih  April  l-to-«.) 
It  is  therefore  not  true,  that  this  massacre  of  the  F^nch  hap- 
pened at  the  same  hour,  and  at  the  sound  of  ihe  'e»pe'  beUs, 
iver  all  parts  of  the  island.     Nor  is  it  more  jprobable,  that  the 
plot  had  been  contrived  by  Peter  III.,  King  of  Arra^on  ;  since 
the  Palermitans  displayed  at  first  the  bonner  of  the  church, 
having  resolved  to  surrender  to  the  Pope ;  but  being  driven  from 
this  resolution,  and  dreading  the  vwneeance  of  Charles,   hey 
despatched  deputies  to  the  ICing  of  Arragon,  who  was  then 
cruising  with  a  fleet  off  the  African  coast,  and  made  him  an  offer 
of  theif  crown.     This  prince  yielded  to  the  invitation  of  the 
Palermitans;  he  landed  at  Trapani.  and  thence  passed  to  Pa- 
lermo,  where  he  was  crownecf  King  of  Sicily.     The  who  e 
island  submitted  to  him;  and  Charles  of  Anjou  was  obliged  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Messina,  which  he  had  undertaken.     Peter 
.     Stored  and  took  possession  of  the  p^ace.  and  from  that  time 
;     Sicily  remained  under  the  power  of  the  Kings  of  Arn^n ,  it 
became  the  inheritance  of  a  particular  branch  of  the  Arragonese 
princes ;  and  the  House  of  Anjou  were  reduced  to  the  single 

kingdom  of  Naples.  .     ...     v  .v  r»i.-:- 

Spain.  whieh  was  divided  into  several  sovereigntoes,  both  Chris- 
tiatiand  Mahometwi.  presented  a  continual  specUcle  of  commo- 
tion  and  carnage.  The  Christian  States  of  Castdle  "d  Arragon, 
were  gradually  mcreased  by  the  conquests  made  ofer  the  Malto- 


z 


Michael  Pkltologaa, 
<«Una  fVoin  CoiwUin- 
na«lf  diapouMwd  of 
Utan  Vapm  (1980.) 
the  mult  of  •  con- 
rentlenon  of  Salerno, 
been  but  the  sudden 
aversion  of  the  Sici- 
ur  of  Tespers,  on  the 
I  the  inhabitants  of 
of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
n,  it  happened  that  a 
a  private  insult  to  a 
irhich  drew  on  a  gene- 
ench  who  were  in  the 
>d,  with  the  exception 
Villiam  Porcellet,  who 
This  revolt  gradually 
ery  where  the  French 
ras  the  last  that  caught 
lid  not  take  ploce  till 
no,  (29ih  April  1282.) 
■6  of  the  French  hop- 
id  of  the  vesper  bells, 
lore  probable,  that  the 
ing  of  Arragon  ;  since 
Imnner  of  the  church, 
;  but  being  driven  from 
iance  of  Charles,  they 
rragon,  who  was  then 
,  and  made  him  an  ofier 
Q  the  invitation  of  the 
1  thence  passed  to  Fa- 
f  Sicily.     The  whole 
f  Anjou  was  obliged  to 
id  undertaken.     Peter 
:e,  and  from  that  liroe 
Kings  of  Arragon ;  it 
inch  of  the  Arragonese 
reduced  to  the  single 

vertfignties,  both  Chris* 
lal  spectacle  of  commo* 
if  Caatilie  and  Arragon, 
ts  made  over  the  Suho- 


Hi 


niioi)  IV.    A.  D.  1074—1900. 

matani ;  whilt  the  kingdom  of  Navarre,  less  exposed  to  coo- 
quest  bjr  its  local  situation,  remained  nearly  in  its  original  slate 
of  mediocrity.  This  latter  kingdom  passed  in  succession  to 
female  heirs  of  diflerent  houses.  Blanche  of  Navarre,  daughter 
of  Sancho  VI.,  transferred  it  to  the  Counts  of  Champasne  (lst34.) 
On  the  extinction  of  the  male  line  of  that  house,  in  Henry  I.  of 
Navarre  (1274,)  Joan  I.,  his  daughter  and  heiress,  conveyed  that 
kingdom,  together  with  the  Coint^s  of  Champagne  and  Brie, 
to  the  crown  of  France.  Philip  the  Fair,  husband  of  that  prin- 
cess, and  his  three  sons,  Louis  le  Hulin,  Philip  the  Long,  and 
Charles  the  Fair,  were,  at  the  same  time,  kings  both  of  France 
and  Navarre.  Finally,  it  was  Queen  Joan  II.,  daughter  of 
Louis  le  Hutin,  and  heretrix  of  Navarre,  who  transferred  that 
kingdom  to  the  family  of  the  Counts  d'E  vreux,  and  relinquished 
the  Comt^s  of  Champagne  and  Brie  to  Philip  of  Valois,  suc- 
cessor of  Charles  the  Fair  to  the  throne  of  France  (1336.) 

The  family  of  the  Counts  of  Barcelona  ascended  the  throne 
of  Armffon  (1137,)  by  the  niarringe  of  Count  Rnymorid-Bereii- 

f:uicrIV.  with  Donna  Petronilln,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Rainira 
I.,  King  of  Arragon.  Don  Pedro  Tl.,  grandson  of  Raymond- 
Berenguier,  happening  to  be  at  Rome  (1204,)  was  there  crowned 
king  of  Arragon  by  Pope  Innocent  III.  On  this  occasion  ho 
did  homage  tor  his  kingdom  to  that  pontiflT,  nnd  engaged,  for 
himself  and  successors,  to  pay  an  annual  tribute  to  llie  Holy 
See.  Don  James  I.,  surnanied  the  Conqueror,  son  of  Don  Pedro 
)L,  gained  some  important  victories  over  the  Mahometans,  from 
whom  he  took  the  Balearic  Isles  (1230,)  and  the  kinodom  of 
Valenlia,"  (1238.)  Don  Pedro  II.,  eldest  son  of  Don  James  I., 
hud  dispossessed  Charles  I.  of  AnJou  and  Sicily,  which  drew 
down  upon  him  a  violent  pernecution  on  the  part  of  Pojw  Martin 
IV.,  who  was  on  the  eve  of  publiiihing  a  cru.tade  against  him, 
and  assigning  over  his  estates  to  Charles  of  Valoi.-<,  a  younger 
brother  of  Philip  called  the  Hurdy,  king  of  France.  Don  James 
II.,  younger  son  of  Don  Pedro  III.,  succeeded  in  making  his 

Biaco  with  the  Court  of  Rome,  and  even  obtained  from  Pone 
oniface  VIU.  (1297)  the  investiture  of  the  Isknd  of  Sardinia, 
on  condition  of  acknowledging  himself  the  vassal  and  tributary 
of  the  Holy  See  for  that  kingdom,  which  he  afterwards  obtained 
by  conquest  from  the  republic  of  Pisa. 

The  principal  victories  of  the  Christians  over  the  Mahome- 
taas  in  Spain,  were  reserved  for  the  kings  of  CaaUUe,  whose 
history  is  axtremely  fertile  in  great  evenu.  Alohonso  VI., 
whom  some  call  Alphonso  I.,  alter  having  taken  Mbdrid  and 
Toledo  (1065.)  and  subdued  the  whole  kingdom  of  Toledo,  wa« 
on  the  point  of  altogether  expelling  the  Mahometans  from  Spain 


mf- 


11^  '*^       eaAmi  v. 

wktn  •  ltf»laUon  which  htM-nad  |«^*}<*  •a^^j'ji 
forcM  Vy  fcwh  nnmbcn.  md  ihau  arrMttd  th«  progrtM  of  Um 

Th«  aJ!rid.i,'tn  Awb  dynMty,  '•••^•"^•i'^.*S";„'2l' 
Mounad,  wlgntd  ih«n  ow  »h«t  pwt  of  AS?**  *'*"]' f?!?'^ 
hendt  A  Wc.  pwwrly  m  called  {rii.  Tripoli,  Tunta,  wd  Alrien.) 
•nd  the  MogibJcomprehending  Fe«  .nd  Morocco,)  whicR  thoy 
hS  conqumd  Irom'th.  Fatimile  "»?»»•  «f«Ei-.k.rS 
poncd  ihit  a  new apottle  and  conaueror,  ^*^*^.^^^p^,[^? 
of  Omer.  collected  .ome  iribe.  of  Arab.  »n  «^e  vicmity j^Si^ 
meeta.  ocity  in  the  kingdom  of  Fea,and  got  himwlf  proclaimed 
Smandefof  thePalthful.     Hi.  -dher^.!.  tc«k  tfie  name  o 
Morabelkin,  a  term  which  .igniBe.  xealfmdi, *«^«^ '«  "j'f*?*' 
and  whence  the  Spaniard,  have  formed  |«e  "•"••^'"f  «!«*f, 
and  ManOaHth.    Having  made  hunwlf  "r»*' "f,  jj*  Wj 
Sugulme.n,  thia  warlike  Emir  extended  hi.  conq««»t«  '"  Jj 
Mogreb,  a.  well  a.  in  Afrirn  Proper,  whence  h«  «pen«d  the 
ZeiHde..    Hi.  .ucce..or,  You.uff,  or  Jo.eph,  the  .on  of  Ta.- 
chefin.  completed  the  conque.t  of  the.e  countne. ;  and  built  the 
city  of  Morocco  (1069.)  which  he  modo  the  capiul  of  the  Mogreb. 
an  J  the  .eat  of  his  new  empire.    Thi.  P'|n5rHff ,  ?•  jj*! 
homeian.  of  Seville,  to  whose  aid  ^!>rr^»rchtd  Tj,*^ .Ji-  "gJJJJ' 
troops,  defeated  the  king  of  Castille  at  the  battle  of  Badajo. 
(1090.)  and  .ubdued  the  principal  Mahometan  .tate.  of  Spam. 
>uch  a.  Grenada  and  Seville,  fcc.  .  ,„.iai. 

The  empire  of  the  Almoravide.  was  -ubverted  in  the  twelfth 
century  by  another  Mahometan  sect,  called  the  Mf-^*^*"*'  »' 
AlmJadei  a  word  signifying  Unitarian..  An  upstart  fanaUc, 
nnmea  Abduln^otimeu,  wa.  the  founder  of  «.»»»  "ct.  He  waa 
educated  among  the  mountain,  of  Sou.,  in  Mauritania,  and 
assumed  the  q«litv  of  Emir  (112^,)  and  the  .un.«ne  o  Jfo- 
hadi,  that  i..  Ae  ciuf-the  ^ader  •J'' ^irecto  of  the  fcithfaL 
Hav  ng  .ubdued  Morocco,  Africa,  and  the  *»?ol»»/,^Mogreb^ 

he  annihiliate d  the  iy«'^X°{'^^  ^^'^'^':!^; ^^^J^^^'^^ul 
the  nme  Ume  vanqui.hed  the  MahomeUn  .ttje.  m  Spain.  He 
took  alM  (lieO)  froTm  the  Norman.  T«mj.  Mohadie,  wd  ^i»h. 
of  which  they  had  taken  poawasion.  One  of  hU  auccewor., 
na^ed  N.sef.Mohammed,7ormed  the  project  of  '•^,«|q'»ri»f 

the  whoto  continent  of  Spdn.  '^Z:SSZWvS^o7c^- 
he  made  for  this  purpoae,  alarmed  AlffcoMO  Viu.,  king  oikj^m- 
SeTXimmedUfnirmed  «>  ^^j;^  ftjiSTm^ 
nson  and  Nawine,  vaA  evwi  ensagwl  Pope  »»«*»*"»•  »» 
S!Sim.cni..de'.g«nrt  th.  >S*««°«^^^ £££,?' 
Eurqw  and  Africa  mrt  on  the  conto  of  Ci^ 

(WW;)  nad  In  the  enTlnma  of  ike  city  Ubeda  wm foagfat  a 


J 


VltlOD  IT.      A.  D.  107i<— 1300. 


\m 


rica  tofmraiMl  ikdr 
d  the  pffOfTM*  of  Um 

led  flrom  Seiri,  ton  of 

Africa  whkh  compre- 

i,Tunk,Md  Alffien,) 

Morocco,)  which  they 

IS  of  Egypt.    It  hap- 

amed  AmMibeker,  son 

the  viciaity  of  Sugul* 

ot  himself  proclaimed 

snts  took  the  name  of 

1^  dtvotei  to  religion  ; 

le  names  Almoravidei 

'  master  of  the  city  of 

I  his  conquests  in  the 

lence  he  expelled  the 

seph,  the  son  of  Tas* 

ouniries ;  and  built  the 

!  capiul  of  the  Mogreb, 

>rince  joined  the  Ma- 

hed  with  his  victorious 

the  battle  of  Badajos 

imetan  states  of  Spain, 

ubverted  in  the  twelfth 
lied  the  MoaAedint,  or 
I.     An  upstart  fanatic, 
of  this  sect.     He  was 
us,  in  Mauritania,  and 
[id  the  surname  of  Mo- 
director  of  the  faithful, 
le  whole  of  the  Mogreb, 
loravides  (1146,^  and  at 
sn  states  in  Spam.    He 
I,  Mohadie,  and  Tripoli, 
One  of  his  successors, 
iroject  of  ra-conquering 
Base  preparations  whicK 
OMoVlU..kiiigofCas> 
ce  with  die  kiags  of  Ai^ 
.  Pop*  laaoeaiit  m.  to 
letans.    Tha  amiiea  of 
>f  Caatila  and  Andahwia 
ity  Ubada  was  feo^t  a 


bloody  battle,  whkh  so  crippled  the  power  of  thcr  Almohadoe,  aa 
to  occasion  in  a  short  time  the  downfall  and  dismembermeat  af 
their  empire." 

About  this  period  (1200,)  the  Mahometans  of  Spain  rerolted 
afresh  from  Africa,  and  divided  themselves  into  several  petty 
states,  of  which  the  principal  and  the  only  one  that  existed  for 
several  centuries,  was  that  of  the  descendants  of  Naser,  Kings 
of  Grenada.  Ferdinand  III.,  King  of  Gastille  and  Leon,  took 
advantage  of  this  event  to  renew  his  conquests  over  the  Ma- 
hometans. He  took  from  them  the  kinirdoms  of  Cordova,  Mur- 
cia,  and  Seville  (1236,  et  seq.,)  and  left  them  only  the  single 
kinffdom  of  Grenada. 

These  wars  against  the  Mahomets'  j  were  the  occasion  of 
several  religious  and  military  orders  beinff  founded  in  Spain. 
Of  these,  the  most  ancient  was  that  founded  and  fixed  at  Alcan- 
tara (1156,)  whence  it  took  its  name;  having  for  its  badge  or 
decoration  a  green  cross,  in  form  of  the  lily,  ot  Jkur-de'lis.  The 
order  of  Calatrava  was  instituted  in  1 168 ;  it  was  confirmed  br 
Pope  Alexander  III.  (1164,)  and  assumed  as  its  distinctive  mart 
the  red  cross,  also  in  form  of  the  lily.  The  order  of  St.  James 
of  Campostella,  founded  in  1161,  and  confirmed  by  the  same 
Pope  (1176,)  was  distinffuished  by  a  red  cross,  in  form  of  a 
sword.  Finally,  the  order  of  Montesa  (1317,)  supplanted  that 
of  the  Templars  in  t\:»  kingdom  of  Arragon. 

The  Kings  of  Castillo  and  Arragon  having  conquered  from 
the  Artbs  a  part  of  what  is  properly  called  Portugal,  formed  it 
into  a  distinct  government,  under  the  name  of  Portocah,  or  Po^ 
tugal.  Henry  of  Burgundy,  a  French  prince,  grandson  of  Ro- 
bert, called  the  Old,  Duke  of  Bui^ndy,  and  great-grandson  of 
Robert  II.,  King  of  France,  having  distinguished  himself  by  his 
bravery  in  the  wars  between  the  Castillians  and  the  Mahome- 
tans, Alphonso  VI.,  King  of  Castillo,  wished  to  attach  the  young 
Erince  to  him  by  the  ties  of  blood ;  and,  for  this  purpose,  gave 
im  in  marriage  his  daughter  the  Infant  Donna  Theresa ;  and 
created  hiii^  Count  of  Portugal  (1090.)  This  State,  including 
at  first  merely  the  cities  of  Oporto,  Draga,  Miranda,  Lameoo, 
Viseo,  and  Coimbra,  began  to  assume  its  present  form,  in  toe 
reign  of  Alphonso  I.,  son  of  Count  Henry.  The  Mahometans, 
alarmed  at  the  warlike  propensities  of  the  young  Alphonso,  had 
marched  with  a  si^arier  foice  to  attack  him  by  surprise  Par 
from  being  intimidated  by  tha  danger,  this  prince,  to  animate 
the  eoaraga  of  his  troops,  pretended  that  an  apparition  from  hatp 
ven  had  anthoriaed  him  to  procbdm  himself  King  in  tha  fcce  of 
the  anav,  in  Tirtae  of  an  express  order  which  he  said  ha  hai 
lecaiTea  flrom  Ohritt  *    He  then  aaarehad  against  the  anamv 


VOL.  I. 


19 


IM 


eSAFRB  V. 


and  totally  routed  them  in  the  pWns  of  P""*"  ("^'i  JJ," 
!^^ry,  famous  in  the  annal./PoTtug.^,.I«ved  Ae  way  fw  Ae 
conqSt  of  the  cities  Leiria,  Santarem,  Lubon,  Cmt«,  ^c^r 
do  ial,  Evora,  and  Elvas,  situated  on  *«  ^»  "^  ^^'^  ^!. 
Moreover,  to  secure  the  protection  of  the  Court  of  Rome  against 
KS  of  Leon,  who  disputed  with  him  the  mdependence  of 
hS  nXl,  Alpbonso  to&  the  ^g^'^S^V^f  ^^^^^^Jfte 
htaiself  vassal  and  tributary  to  the  Holy  See  (1142.)    He  after- 
wSS  convoked  the  estates  of  his  Vingdom  at  Lamego,  and 
Ae^  decked  his  independence  by  a  fundamental  ^^^^^f 
SMreffulated  the  order  of  succession  to  the  throne.     Sancho  I., 
Sn  aXuccessor  of  Alphonso,  took  from  the  Mahome^ns  Ae 
town  of  Silves  in  Algarve;  and  Alphonso  III.,  soon  after, 
ri249 )  comnleted  the  conquest  of  that  provmce. 
^   m  firsTCgs  of  Portugal,  in  order  to  gain  the  protection  of 
the  Court  of  Rome,  were  obliged  to  grant  extensive  Vjenefices  to 
Ihe  erclesiastics.  with  regalian  rights,  and  the  exemption  of  the 
ctrS  frorthe  I^culiar>ri8diction.    Their  successors,  how- 
ever findSg  themselves  firmly  established  on  the  throne,  soon 
c  Wd  S  policy,  and  manifested  as  much  «f  indifference  for 
tHergf  ^ Tphonso  I.  had  testified  of  ^^ ^'^'^  ^^^^^1 
ment  to  them.  Wee  originated  »  1°"«  «^^/,^'t  J^J 
nuarrpls  with  the  Court  of  Rome.    Pope  Innocent  IV.  deposea 
Jancho  ir{1246,)  and  Appointed  Alphonso  IH.  m  his  place. 

ri„ys!sonLd  successorTthis  »»»»«' f™*?' '^^Swi^*; 
cTtel  for  the  same  reason,  and  compelled  to  sign  a  feajy  (1^0 
bvwhich  the  clergy  were  re-estabUsW  m  all  their  former  rights. 
^rFmn^the^holepoUcyof  the  Kings  was  directed  ag^tnM 
theS  Dowerfal  vas«ib,  who  shared  among  them  the  finest  pro- 
^nis'^TSS  kingdom.    Th.  Duke*  of  Burgundy^  Norm^dy. 
and  Aauitaine ;  the  Counts  of  Flanders,  Champame,  and  Tou- 
Sfse  •  ArDuke.  of  Bretagne,  Ae  Counts  ofToitiers.  ^, 
BhS  An?ou  and  Maine,  Al^n^on,  Auvergne,  Angoulfime,  Pe- 
ri^^d.S^onne,»  tec.  foLed  so  many  petty  sovere^ps, 
equal  in  some  respects  to  Ae  elector?  and  pnnces  of  Ae  Oer- 
Xic  empire,    ^eral  ciicumstance..  however,  contnbuted  to 
mS^nSThalance  in  fiiTOur  of  royalty.    The  crown  was  he- 
SS!ind  Ae  demesne  lM»d.bek»ging  to  Ae  king,  whjch. 
bSagV;^  exton«ve.  gave  him  a  power  which  fiur  outwe^ 
Att  of  any  individual  vaswl.    Besides,  Aese  same  dmeanes 
Mnff  situate  in  th«  centre  of  Ae  kingdom,  enaWed  Ae  sovereign 
to  SSSve  Ae  conduct  of  hi.  va-d^  to  ditide  Aejr  fon«j  wd 

SS  A^elSloJerTEr dependwit^ «id Ae  enhghlen. 


iqae(1139.)  This 
paved  die  way  for  the 
liabon,  Cintra,  Alcazar 
banks  of  the  Tagus, 
ourt  of  Rome  against 
the  independence  of 
ion  of  acknowledging 
~  (1142.)  HeaAer- 
iom  at  Lamego,  and 
iidamental  law,  which 
he  throne.  Sancho  I., 
the  Mahometans  the 
konso  III.,  soon  after, 
irovince. 

o  gain  the  protection  of 
it  extensive  benefices  to 
id  the  exemption  of  the 
Their  successors,  how- 
led  on  the  throne,  soon 
much  nf  indifference  for 
sf  kiiii'<ie8s  and  attach- 
ing se.**  js  of  broils  and 
>e  Innocent  IV.  deposed 
konso  III.  in  his  place, 
prince,  was  excommuni- 
3  to  siffn  a  treaty  (1289,) 
In  all  meir  former  rights. 
Dgs  was  directed  against 
long  them  the  finest  pn>> 
f  Burgundy,  Normandy, 
s,  Chfunpagne,  and  Tou- 
3ounts  of  Poitiers,  Bar, 
ergne,  Angouldme,  Pe* 
many  petty  sovereigns, 
ind  princes  of  the  uer- 
however,  contributed  to 
ty.  The  crovm  vras  be- 
ing to  the  king,  which, 
sr  which  fiur  outweig^ied 
8,  thfiM  same  demesnes 
m,  enabled  the  sovereign 
» diTide  their  forces,  and 
rer  another.  The  per- 
sach  other,  the  tyranny 
ants,  and  the  enbghten- 


"n 


mioD  nr.    a.  d.  1074—1900. 


W 


cd  policy  of  several  of  the  French  kings,  by  degrees  re-estab> 
lished  the  royal  authority,  which  had  Men  aknost  annihilated 
under  the  last  princes  of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty. 

It  was  at  this  period  that  the  rivalry  between  France  and  En^f- 
land  had  its  ongin.  The  fauh  that  Philip  I.  committed,  u 
making  no  opposition  to  the  conquest  of  England,  by  William 
Duke  of  Normandy,  his  vassal,  served  to  kindle  the  flame  of  war 
between  ihese  princes.  The  war  which  took  place  in  1087,  was 
the  first  that  happened  between  the  two  nations ;  it  was  renewed 
under  the  subsequent  reigns,  and  this  rivalry  was  still  more  in- 
creased, on  occasion  of  the  unfortunate  divorce  between  Louis 
VII.  and  Eleanor  of  Poitou,  heiress  of  Guienne,  Poitou,  and 
Gascogne.  This  divorced  Princess  married  (lldS)  Henry,  sur- 
named  Plantagenet,  Duke  of  Normandy,  Count  of  Anjou  and 
Maine,  and  aflerwards  King  of  England ;  and  brought  him,  in 
dowry,  the  wh'^le  of  her  vast  possessions.  But  it  was  reserved 
for  Fhilip  Augustus  to  repair  the  faults  of  his  predecessors. 
This  great  monarch,  whose  courage  was  equal  to  his  prudence 
and  his  policy,  recovered  his  superiority  over  England ;  he 
strengthened  his  power  and  authority  by  the  numerous  acces- 
sions which  he  made  to  the  crown-Iands,  ^'  (1180-1220.)  Be- 
sides Artois,  Verniandois,  the  earidoms  of  Evreux,  Auvergne, 
and  Alenfon,  which  he  annexed  under  diflferent  titles,  he  took 
advantage  of  the  civil  commotions  which  had  arisen  in  England 
against  King  John,  to  dispossess  the  English  of  Normandy,  An- 
jou, Maine,  Lorraine,  and  Poitou  (12Q0;)  and  he  maintained 
these  conquests  by  the  brilliant  victory  which  he  gained  at  Bou- 
vines  (1214,)  over  the  combined  forces  of  England,  the  Empe- 
ror Otho,  and  the  Count  of  Flanders.  ^ 

Several  of  the  French  kings  were  exclusively  occupied  witl^ 
the  crusades  in  the  East.  Louis  VII.,  Philip  Augustus,  and 
Louis  IX.  took  the  cross,  and  marched  in  person  to  the  Holy 
Land.  These  ultra-marine  expeditions  (1147,  1248,)  which  re- 
quired great  and  powerful  resources,  could  not  hut  exhaust 
France ;  while,  on  the  contrary,  the  crusades  which  Louis  VIII. 
undertook  against  the  Albigenses  and  their  protectors,  the  Counts 
of  Toulouse  and  Carcassonne,  considerably  augmented  the  royal 
power.  Pope  Innocent  III.,  by  prochiiming  this  crusade  (1208,) 
raised  a  tedious  and  bloody  war,  which  desolated  Languedoc ; 
and  during  which,  Ainaticismperpetrated  atrocities  which  make 
humanity  shudder.  Simon,  Count  Monfort,  the  chief  or  general 
of  these  crusaders,  had  the  whole  estates  of  the  counts  of  Tou- 
louse adjudged  him  by  the  Pope.  Amauri,  the  son  and  heir  of 
Simon,  surrendered  his  claims  over  these  forfeitures  to  Loait 
VIIL  King  of  France  (1S86 ;)  and  it  was  this  ciicuoMtanee  that 


Bu-^ 


jodaccd  Lotti*  to  much  in  penon  at  the  bMd  of  the  enuaden, 
agdnst  the  Coaot  of  Toulouse,  hk  Tassel  and  couaia.  He  died 
at  the  close  of  this  expedition,  leaving  to  his  son  and  successor, 
Loois  IX.,  the  task  of  finishing  this  disastrous  w»t.  By  the 
peace  which  was  concluded  at  Paris  (1229,)  between  the  King 
and  the  Count,  the  greater  jpait  of  Laaguedoc  was  allowed  to  r«< 
rm[tt  in  the  possession  of  Louis.  One  arrangement  of  this 
treaty  was  the  marriage  of  the  Count's  daughter  with  AI- 
phonso,  brother  to  the  King;  with  this  express  clause,  that 
adling  heirs  of  this  maniage,  the  whole  territory  of  Toulouse 
ahould  revert  to  Uie  crown.  The  same  treaty  adjudged  to  the 
Pope  the  county  of  Venaissin,  as  an  escheat  of  tne  Counts  of 
Toulouse ;  and  the  Count  of  Carcassonne,  implicated  also  in 
the  cause  of  the  Albigenses,  was  compelled  to  cede  to  the  King 
all  right  over  the  viscounties  of  Beziers,  Carcassonne,  Agde, 
Sodes,  Albi,  and  Nismes.  One  consequence  of  this  bloody 
war  was  the  establishment  of  the  terrible  tribunal  of  the  In- 
quisition,^ and  the  foundinff  of  the  order  of  Dominicans.^ 

Henry  II.,  a  descendant  of  the  house  of  Plantagenet,  having 
mounted. the  throne  of  England,  in  right  of  his  mother  Ma- 
tilda, annexed  to  that  crown  the  dutchy  of  Normandy,  the  coun- 
tries of  Anjou,  Touraine,  and  Maine,  together  with  Guienne, 
Oascogne  and  Poitou.  He  afterwards  added  Ireland,  which  he 
subdued  in  1172.  This  island,  which  had  never  been  con- 
quered, ei^er  by  the  Romans,  or  the  barbarians  who  had  deso- 
M^d  Europe,  was,  at  that  time,  divided  into  five  principal 
sovereignties,  viz.  Monster,  Ulster,  Connaught,  Leinster,  and 
Heath,  whose  several  chiefs  all  assumed  the  title  of  Kings. 
One  of  these  princes  enjoyed  the  digniu  of  monarch  of  the 
island ;  but  he  had  neither  authority  sufficient  to  secure  inter- 
lud  tranquillity,  nor  power  enough  to  repel  with  success  the 
attacks  of  enemies  from  without.  It  was  Uiis  state  of  weakness 
that  induced  Fionry  to  attempt  the  conquest  of  the  island.  He 
obtained  die  sanction  of  Pope  Adrian  IV.,  by  a  bull  in  1155,  and 
nndertook,  in  a  formal  engagement,  to  subject  the  Irish  to  the 
iwisdiction  of  the  Holy  See,  and  the  [wyment  of  Peter't  pence.^ 
ithe  enulaion  of  Dermot,  king  of  Leinster,  who  had  rendered 
himself  odious  by  his  pride  and  his  tyrannjr,  furnished  Henry 
with  a  pretext  for  sending  troops  into  that  island,  to  assist  the 
dethroned  prince  in  recovering  his  dominions.  The  success  of 
die  Englisn,  and  the  victories  which  they  gained  over  Roderic, 
King  of  Connaught,  who  at  that  time  was  cbjief  monarch  of  the 
Mbnd,  determined  Henry  to  undertake,  in  person,  an  expedition 
jMo  Ireland  (in  October  117S.)  He  soon  radueed  the  provinces 
tl  hmmm  and  Mnniiitr  to  mkmiasiMi ;  and  cAer  having  cm- 


tttaK.: 


ntioo  IT.    A.  9. 1074—1300. 


140 


tMMl  of  Um  cruMden, 
and  cowio.  He  died 
hi*  eon  end  auceessor, 
utrou*  WM.  By  the 
129,)  between  the  King 

DC  wes  allowed  to  re- 

anraoffement  of  this 
B  daughter  with   AN 

expreu  clause,  that 
territory  of  Toulouse 
treaty  adiudged  to  the 
leat  of  the  Counts  of 
ne,  implicated  also  in 
ed  to  cede  to  the  King 
,  Carcassonne,  Agde, 

Buence  of  this  bloody 
e  tribunal  of  thf  In- 
r  of  Dominicans.^ 
>f  Plantagenet,  having 
bt  of  his  mother  Ma- 
f  Normandy,  the  coun- 
Deelher  with  Guienne, 
Ided  Ireland,  which  he 
had  never  been  con- 
barians  who  had  deso- 
ed  into  five  principal 
naught,  Leinster,  and 
ed  the  title  of  Kings, 
ily  of  monarch  of  the 
fficient  to  secure  inter- 
repel  with  success  the 
i  this  state  of  weakness 
est  of  the  isUtnd.  He 
,hy  a  bull  in  1155, and 
ubject  the  Irish  to  the 
nent  of  Peter's  perux.^ 
ler,  who  had  rendered 
lony,  furnished  Henry 
Bt  island,  to  assist  the 
dons.  The  success  of 
y  gained  over  Roderic, 
B  chief  monarch  of  the 
1  penon,  an  ai^edition 
I  ledncad  the  provinces 
and  aftar  haring  coa* 


stnieted  several  forts,  and  nominated  a  viceroy  and  othar  crawa 
officers,  he  took  his  departaie  without  completing  the  conanett 
of  the  island.  Soderie,  King  of  Co.  *  lught,  aubimtted  in  1175 ; 
but  it  was  not  till  the  reign  of  Quee.i  Elizabeth  that  the  entire 
reduction  of  Ireland  was  accomplished. 

In  England,  the  rashness  and  rapacity  of  John,  aon  of  Henry 
II.  occasioned  a  mighty  revolution  in  the  government.  The 
discontented  noUes,  with  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  at  their 
head,  joined  in  a  league  against  the  King.  Pope  Innocent  III. 
formally  deposed  him,  made  over  his  kii^om  to  the -Crown  of 
France,  and  proclaimed  a  crusade  against  him  in  every  coon> 
try  of  Europe.  John  obtained  an  accommodati<m  with  the 
Pope ;  and  in  order  to  secure  his  protection,  he  consented  to  be* 
come  a  vassal  of  the  Church,  both  for  England  and  Ireland ; 
engaging  to  pay  his  Holiness,  besides  Peter's  pence,  an  annual 
tribute  of  a  tjiousand  marks.  But  all  in  vain ;  the  nobles  per- 
sisted in  their  revolt,  and  forced  the  Kins  to  grant  them  the 
grand  charter  of  Magna  Charta,  by  whicn  he  and  his  succea- 
sors  were  for  ever  deprived  of  the  power  of  exacting  subsidiea 
without  the  counsel  and  advice  of  Parliament ;  which  did  not 
then  include  the-Commons.  He  granted  to  the  city  of  London, 
and  to  all  cities  and  burghs  in  the  kingdom,  a  renewal  of 
their  ancient  liberties  and  privileges,  and  the  right  of  not  being 
taxed  except  with  the  advice  and.  consent  of  the  common  coun- 
cil.  Moreover,  the  lives  and  properties  of  the  citizens  were 
secured  by  this  charter;  one  clause  of  which  expressly  pro- 
vided, that  no  subject  could  be  either  arrested,  imprisoned,  dis- 
tiossessed  of  his  fortune,  or  deprived  of  his  life,  except  by  a 
egal  sentence  of  his  peers,  conform  to  the  ancient  law  of  the 
country.     This  charter,  which  was  renewed  in  various  subse- 

^uent  reigns,  forms,  at  this  day,  the  basis  of  the  English 
Constitution. 

King  John,  meantime,  rebelled  against  this  charter,  and 
caused  it  to  be  rescinded  by  Pope  Innocent  III.,  who  even  is- 
sued a  bull  of  excommunication  against  the  barons ;  but  they, 
far  from  being  disconcerted  or  intimidated,  made  an  otkt  of 
their  crown  to  Louis,  son  of  Philip  Aug^ustus  King  of  France. 
This  prince  repaired  to  England,  and  th-sre  received  the  fealty 
and  homage  of  the  grandees  and  the  nation.  John,  abandoned 
by  all  his  subjects,  attempted  to  take  refuge  in  Scotland ;  but 
he  died  in  his  flight  at  the  castle  of  Newark.  His  death  made 
a  sudden  change  in  the  minds  and  sentiments  of  the  English. 
The  barons  forsook  the  standard  of  the  French  prince,  and 
rallied  round  that  of  young  Henry,  son  of  King  John,  whose 
long  and  unfortunate  reign  was  a  succession  of  troubles  and 

13* 


tamdMwuft.  Ed«-rdI^wnwid80oMM«ofll«M7ffl.,« 
dtUroiiwd  and  couiageoua  m  bia  hitM  had  bMn  waatr  aad 
iaiolant,  iMtond  iranqaiUity  to  Bii«Iui4.  Ad  made  hit  Bame 
iDiutrioiM  by  the  conqust  which  he  made  of  the  pnneipabty  ol 

Wales 

This  district,  from  the  moM  remote  antiquity,  was  rated  by 
iU  own  native  princes,  descended  from  the  ancient  Bntish  kings. 
Although  they  had  been  vassals  and  tributaries  of  the  longs  of 
Bnglaid.  they  exercised,  nevertheless,  the  rights  of  sovereignty 
in  their  own  country.  Lewellyn,  prince  of  Wales,  tovmgee. 
loused  Uie  cause  of  the  insurgents  in  the  reign  of  Henry  ill., 
and  made  some  attempU  to  withdraw  from  the  t^^'*?*  ?[j*t 
Baalish  crown,  Edward  I.  declared  war  against  hiro  (1282;) 
and  in  a  battle  fought  near  the  Menau,  LeweUyn  was  defeated 
and  slain,  with  two  thousand  of  his  followers.  I>«[>d.  his  bro- 
ther and  successor,  met  with  a  fate  still  more  melancholy.  Hav- 
ing been  taken  prisoner  by  Edward,  he  was  condemned  to  death, 
•1^  executed  like  a  traitor  (1283.)  The  territory  of  Wales  was 
annexed  to  the  crown;  the  king  created  his  eldest  son  fcdward, 
Prince  of  Wales ;  a  tiUe  which  has  since  been  borne  by  the 
eldest  sons  of  the  kings  of  England. 

At  this  period,  the  kingdoms  of  the  North  presented,  in  gen- 
end,  little  else  than  a  spectacle  of  horror  and  carnage.     Ihe 
warlike  and  ferocious  temper  of  the  Northern  nations,  the  want 
•f  fiaed  and  specific  laws  in  the  succession  of  their  lung"'    ?»^*» 
MM  to  innumerable  factions,  encouraged  insolence,  and  foment- 
•d  troubles  and  intestine  wars.     An  extravagant  and  supersU- 
tioas  devotion,  by  loading  the  church  with  wealth,  aggravated 
■dll  more  the  evils  with  which  these  kingdoms  were  distracted. 
The  bishops  and  the  new  metropolitans,"  enriched  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  crown-lands,  and  rendered  bold  by  their  power, 
•nd  the  strength  of  their  castles,  domineered  in  the  senate  and 
tlM  assemblies  of  the  states,  and  neglected  no  opportunity  of 
•ncroaching  on  the  sovereign's  authority.    They  obtained,  by 
compulsion,  the  introductif>n  of  tithes,  and  the  immunity  of  the 
ecclesiastics ;  and  thus  more  and  more  increased  and  cemented 
the  sacerdotal  power.*    This  state  of  trouble  and  internal  com- 
motion tended  to  abate  that  ardour  for  maritime  incursions 
which  had  so  long  agitated  the  Scandinavian  nations.     It  did 
not.  however,  prevent  the  kings  of  Denmaric  and  Sweden  from 
andertaking,  from  time  to  time,  eiqieditions  by  sea,  under  tne 
name  of  Crusades,  for  the  conversion  of  the  Pagan  nations  of 
Ae  North,  whose  territories  they  were  ambitious  to  conquer. 

The  Slavians,  who  inhabited  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic,  were 
*Mi  constantly  committing  piracies,  in  imitaUon  of  the  ancient 


■•rofIlaMryni.,M 

btd  bMD  waalt  aad 
dt  tlhd  made  his  oame 
of  the  prineqwlity  of 

ntiquity,  wm  raleil  by 
ancient  Brituh  kings, 
iitaries  of  the  kings  of 
rights  of  sovereignty 
of  Wales,  having  ee- 
e  reign  of  Henry  III., 
>m  the  Tassalage  of  the 
r  against  him  (1282;) 
Lewellyn  was  defested 
iwers.  Darid,  his  hro- 
lore  melancholy.  Hav- 
es condemned  to  death, 
)  territory  of  Wales  was 
his  eldest  son  Edward, 
nee  been  borne  by  the 

lorth  presented,  in  gen- 
tor  and  carnage.  The 
rthern  nations,  the  want 
on  of  their  kinss,*  gave 
I  insolence,  and  foment- 
Ktravagant  and  supersti- 
ivith  wealth,  aggravated 
ngdoms  were  distracted. 
IS,''  enriched  at  the  ex- 
ed  bold  by  their  power, 
lecred  in  the  senate  and 
ected  no  opportunity  of 
ity.  They  obtained,  by 
ind  the  immunity  of  the 
increased  and  cemented 
rouble  and  internal  com- 
rol-  maritime  incursions 
lioavian  nations.  It  did 
imark  and  Sweden  from 
itions  by  sea,  under  the 
o{  the  Pagan  nations  of 
ambitious  to  conquer. 
ists  of  the  Baltic,  were 
imitation  of  die  ancient 


li&%r, 


naioo  IT.    A.  ».  1074—1900.  4M1 

Notiiuuw,  nlandaring  and  i&Yagiog  the  jprovineM  ud  islanda 
•f  Dwunaw.  Valdamar  I.,  wisoiiw  to  put  an  ead  to  these  de- 
vaadations,  and  thiiating  moreover  wt  the  glory  of  converting  to 
Chriatianity  those  nations  against  whom  all  the  eflTorts  of  the 
Oermans  had  failed,  attacked  them  at  different  times  with  his 
numeroos  flotillas.  He  took  and  pillaged  several  of  their  towns, 
such  as  Arcona  and  Carentx  or  Gartz,  in  the  isle  of  Rugen 
(1168,)  Julin,  now  called  Wollin,  and  Stettin,  two  seaports  in 
Pomerania  (1176-6.)  He  made  the  princes  of  Rugen  his  vas- 
sals  and  tributaries,  and  is  generally  regarded  as  the  founder  of 
Dantsie  (1165,)  which  originally  was  merely  a  fort  constructed 
by  the  Dunes.  Canute  Vl.,  son  and  successor  of  Vddemar  I., 
followed  the  example  of  his  father ;  he  reduced  the  winces  of 
Pomerania  (1183)  and  Mecklenburg  (1186,)  and  the  Counts  of 
Schwerin  (1201,)  to  a  state  of  dependence ;  he  made  himself 
master  of  Hambure  and  Lubec,  and  subdued  the  whole  of  Hoi- 
stein.  Valdemar  II.  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  the  Slavians, 
and  Lord  of  Nordaibingia.  He  added  Lauenburg,  a  part  of 
Prussia,  Esthonia,  and  the  Isle  of  Oesel,  to  the  conquests  of  his 
predecessors,  and  became  the  founder  of  the  cities  of  Stralsund 
and  Revel  (1300  and  1222.) 

This  prince,  master  of  nearly  the  whole  southern  coast  of  the 
Baltic,  and  raised  to  the  summit  of  prosperity  by  the  superiority 
of  his  commercial  and  marit;n;e  power,  commanded  for  a  time 
the  attention  of  all  Europe ;  but  an  unforeseen  event  eclipsed 
his  glory,  and  deprived  him  of  all  the  advantages  of  his  victories 
and  his  conquests.  Henry,  Count  of  Schwerin,  one  of  the  vas- 
sals of  Valdemar,  wishing  to  avenge  an  outrage  which  he  pre- 
tended to  have  received  from  him,  seized  that  prince  by  surprise 
(1223,)  and  detained  him  for  three  years  prisoner  in  the  castle 
of  Schwerin.  This  circumstance  aroused  the  courage  of  the 
other  vanquished  nations,  who  instantly  took  to  arms.  Adol- 
phus,  Count  of  Schauenburg,  penetrated  into  Holstein,  and 
subdued  the  princes  of  Mecklenburg  and  Pomerania,  with  the 
cities  of  Hamburg  and  Lubec.  Valdemar,  restored  to  liberty, 
made  several  eSbrts  to  reconquer  his  revolted  provinces ;  but  a 
powerful  confederacy  being  formed  against  him,  be  was  defeat- 
ed in  a  battle  fought  (1227,)  at  Bornhoevet,  near  Segeberg,  in 
Holstein.  Of  all  his  conquests,  he  retained  only  the  Isle  of 
Rugen,  Esthonia,  and  the  town  of  Revel,  which,  in  course  of 
time,  were  lost  or  abandoned  by  his  successors. 

Sweden,  which  had  been  governed  in  successiun  by  the  dy- 
nasties of  Stenkil,  Swerkar,  and  St.  Eric,  was  lung  a  prey  to 
internal  dissensions,  which  arose  principally  from  the  two  dif- 
ferent forms  of  worship  professed  and  authorized  by  the  state. 


m^^' 


m  OaATTIB  T. 

The  whole  B»Uon,  diyided  in  their  religioot  sentinieiite, 
tbemMlvet  anviged  into  two  Actions,  wid  under  two  reigung 
fiuniUes,  mutually  htting  end  ezasperktMl  eguntt  each  other, 
for  noMly  half  a  century.  Two,  and  someUmea  more,  pnnces 
were  aera  reigning  at  once  from  1080  liU  1138,  when  the  throne 
becan  to  be  occumed  ultimately  by  the  deacendanU  of  Sweyn 
and  St  Eric.  During  all  this  time,  tiohoce  usurped  the  place 
of  ri^t,  and  the  crown  of  Sweden  was  more  than  once  the 
prin  of  assassination  and  treason.  «  j  a.  q«4.. 

In  the  midst  of  these  intestme  duorders,  we  find  the  Swedes 
even  attempting  foreign  conquests.    To  these  they  were  msti- 
irated  both  by  the  genius  of  the  age,  which  encouraged  crusades 
ind  military  missions,  as  weU  a^  by  the  de^  of  atengma  the 
piracies  wUcl*  the  Finlanders,  and  other  Pagan  tnbes  of  the 
North,  committed  from  Ume  to  time  on  the  coasts  of  Sweden. 
St.  Eric  became  at  once  the  apostle  and  the  conqueror  of  tin- 
land  (1167 ;)  he  established  also  a  Swedish  colony  in  Ny  and, 
and  subdued  the  provinces  of  Hel""?!"^  and  J^W^f • 
Charles  I.,  son  of  Swerkar,  united  the  kmadom  of  Gothland  to 
Sweden,  and  was  the  first  that  took  the  Utle  of  theae  two  kmg- 
doms.     Eric,  surnamed  Laspe,  or  the  Lisper,  resumed  the  cru- 
sadinir  system  of  warfare ;  and,  in  the  character  of  a  missionary, 
conquered  Tavastland  and  the  eastern  part  of  'oUinia-   Birger, 
a  prince  of  the  Folkungian  dynasty,  who  ascended  the  throne 
of  Sweden  in  1260,  conquered,  under  the  same  pretext,  Carelia 
and  Savolax,  and  fortified  Viburg.     ««  «?"P«"«t  *^«  T±*: 
.ants  of  these  countries  to  embrace  the  Christian  religion  (12IW,) 
and  annexed  them  to  Finland.     We  find,  idso,  several  of  the 
Swedish  kings  undertaking  missionary  expeditions  against  their 
Pamin  neighbours  the  Esthonians,  who,  from  time  to  time.com- 
miUbd  dreadful  ravages  on  the  coasts  of  Sweden.     Ihese  ex- 
peditions,  which  were  always  esteemed  sacred,  served  as  an 
^use  for  the  sovereigns  of  the  North  m  avoiding  the  crusades 
to  the  Holy  Land,  in  which  they  took  no  part.* 

Prussia  and  the  Prussians  are  totally  unknown  in  history  be- 
fore the  end  of  the  tenth  century .«  The  author  of  the  Life  ot 
St.  Adelbert  of  Prague,  who  suflered  martyrdom  in  P'"/"'*  >«» 
the  reign  of  Otho  III.,  is  the  first  that  mentions  them  under  this 
new  name  (997.)  Two  hundred  years  after,  the  Abb<  of  Oliva, 
J^Lmed  the  Christian,  became  the  apostle  of  ^^e  P""««». 
and  was  appointed  by  Pope  Innocent  III.  the  first  bishop  of 
Prussia  (1216.)  This  idolatrous  nation,  haughty  and  indepen- 
dent, and  attached  to  the  reigning  superstition,  having  repulsed 
all  the  efibrts  that  were  repeatedly  made  to  convert  them  to 
Christianity,  Pope  Honorius  III.,  in  the  true  spint  of  his  age, 


mioDiv.    A.  D.  1074— 1300. 


18S 


iotts  Mndmeiiit,  mw 
d  under  two  reigning 

■gainit  each  other, 

Mtimea  more,  princes 

138,  when  the  throne 

Mcendanta  of  Swejm 

ice  asurped  the  place 

more  than  once  the 

we  find  the  Swedes 
ihese  they  were  insti- 
-  encouraged  crusades 
lesire  of  aVenginv  the 
r  Pagan  tribes  of  the 
he  coasts  of  Sweden, 
he  conqueror  of  Fin- 
ish colony  in  Nyland, 
land  and  Jamptland. 
Qffdom  of  Gothland  to 
itle  of  these  two  king* 
iper,  resumed  the  cru- 
iracter  of  a  missionary, 
rt  of  ^olhnia.  Birger, 

0  ascended  the  throne 
3  same  pretext,  Carelia 
compelled  the  inhabit- 
iristian  religion  (1293,) 
d,  also,  several  of  the 
xpeditions  against  their 
from  time  to  time,  com- 
f  Sweden.     These  ex- 

1  sacred,  served  as  an 
[)  avoiding  the  crusades 
>  part.* 

unknown  in  history  be- 
le  author  of  ihe  Life  of 
lartyrdom  in  Prussia  in 
entiODS  them  under  this 
ifter,  the  Abb<  of  Oliva, 
lostle  of  the  Prussians, 
III.  the  first  bishop  of 
,  haughty  and  indepen- 
stition,  having  repulsed 
ide  to  convert  them  to 
3  true  spirit  of  his  age, 


toUished  a  CraiMle  against  them  (1218,)  to  proselytlie  them 
y  force.  Annies  of  crusaders  were  poured  into  Prussia,  and 
overran  the  whole  country  with  fire  and  sword.  The  Prusaians 
took  cruel  vengeance  on  the  Polonese  of  Masovia,  who  had 
made  commda  cause  against  them  vith  the  crusaders  of  the 
East.  At  length,  Conrad,  duke  of  Mauovia,  finding  himself  too 
weak  to  withstand  the  fury  of  the  Prussians,  called  in  the  Teu- 
tonic knights  to  his  aid ;  and,  anxious  to  secure  for  ever  the  a.t- 
sistance  and  protection  of  that  order,  he  made  them  a  grant  of 
the  territory  of  Culm ;  and  moreover,  promised  them  whatever 
lands  he  might  conquer  from  the  common  enemy  (1226.)  This 
contract  having  beep  sanctioned  by  the  Emperor  Frederic  II., 
{he  knights  speedily  came  into  possession  of  their  new  domin- 
ions (1^.)  They  extended  themselves  by  degrees  over  all 
Prussia,  ofter  a  long  and  murderous  war,  which  they  had  car- 
ried on  against  the  idolatrous  natives.  That  country,  which 
had  been  peopled  by  numerous  German  colonies  in  succession, 
did  not  submit  to  the  yoke  of  tli^  Teutonic  order,  until  the 
greater  part  of  its  ancient  inhabitants  had  been  destroyed.  The 
Knights  took  care  to  confirm  their  authority  and  their  religion 
in  Prussia,  by  constructing  citios  and  forts,  and  founding 
bishoprics  and  oonvents.  The  city  of  Koninsberg  "  on  the 
Pregel,  was  built  in  1255;  and  that  of  Marienburg  on  the  No- 
gat,  which  became  the  capital  of.  the  Order,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  founded  in  1280. 

The  Teutonic  knights  completed  the  conquest  of  that  coun- 
try (1283,)  by  the  reduction  of  Sudavia,  the  last  of  the  eleven 
provinces  which  composed  ancient  Prussia.  We  can  scarcely 
conceive  how  a  handful  of  these  knights  should  have  been  able, 
in  so  short  a  time,  to  vanquish  a  warlike  and  powerful  nation, 
inspired  with  the  love  of  liberty,  and  emboldened  by  fanaticism 
to  make  the  most  intrepid  and  obstinate  defence.  But  we  ought 
to  take  into  consideration,  that  the  indulgences  of  the  court  of 
Rome  allured  continually  into  Prussia  a  multitude  of  crusaders 
from  all  the  provinces  of  the  Empire ;  and  that  the  knights 
gained  these  over  to  their  ranks,  by  distributing  among  them 
the  lands  which  they  had  won  by  conquest.  In  this  way,  their 
numbers  were  incessantly  recruited  by  new  colonies  of  cruse- 
ders,  and  die  nobles  flocked  in  crowds  to  their  standard,  to  seek 
territorial  acquisitions  in  Prussia. 

The  increase  of  commerce  on  the  Baltic,  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, led  the  Germans  to  discover  the  coasts  of  Livonia.  Some 
merdttnts  from  Bremen,  on  their  way  to  Wisby,  in  the  island 
of  ^thland,  a  seaport  on  the  Baltic  very  much  frequented  at 
that  time,  wnre  thrown  by  a  tempest  on  the  coast  near  the  mouth 


MM 


mum 


IH 


•V 


OHAFTSR  V> 


-r  Ik.  n»{M  ailB.^  The  dwiiie  of  gwn  induMd  them  to  •ntor 
?nt^a^«ond?nce  ^U  the  netKi  of  the  ceantry ;  jnd 
Km  a^TS'e  .tebility  to  •  brwch  of  commerce  which 

oTristian  relirion  Into  Li»onm.    A  monfc  of  Se«berg  m  Ho 
■tein.  named  Mtinard,  undertook  this  mission.    He  was  the  hrst 
rhopTuvoni.(1192.).nd  fixed  his^««^^^^^ 


well  as  to  avoid  the  dangers  to  wnicn  nw  m»»iuu  «i~---  • 

Tnied  the  Pope  to  publish  a  crusade  against  the  Livonians. 
TrzeSju^TeC  Wished  sword  -  hand  JglU^g  ^^Jt 
the  people  whom  he  intended  to  convert.  The  ?"««»»•■«" 
this  were  either  massacred  or  expelled  from  Livonia;  but,  in  a 
l';Time.  a  nVwTmv  of  crusa^rs  "-^^d  ijto  ^--n  r^^^ 
under  the  banner  of  Albert,  the  third  bishop,  who  *>?'"»»«!?"/ 
of  Riga.  (1200)  which  became  the  sealof  his  bishopric,  and  after- 
wa^ihe  inelropolitan  see  of  «"  ?'«»?'•  ;"J£T'!;J^;, 
same  prelate  founded  the  military  order  of  the  f  ««^A  » £^3 
or  StLd^arers,  to  whom  he  ceded  the  third  of  all  the  coun- 

Uies  he  had  conquered.     This  order,  ^^fi'^^^^J,  ^^slthe 
cent  III.  (1204,)  finding  themselves  too  '«*« Jo  oppose  the 
Pwms  of  Srinia,  agr^  to  unite  with  the  Teutonic  prde 
al?^  who,  at  that"  t^e.  nominated  the  f-"^  ^'^Srand 
masters  in  Livonia,  known  by  the  names  of  Heermeuter  and 
'iZZaUr.    Vo^  Gregory'lX.,in  ^fi^-^^-X;/ 
these  two  orders,  exacted  the  surrender  of  the  d«t^^^^^^^^ 
Wesemberg,  Weisenstein,  and  HapsiU,  to  Valdemar  11.,  wh'ch  'he 
kniirhts,  w?h  consent  of  the  Bishop  of  Dorpat,  had  taken  from  him 
dS  hrcaptivity.  This  retrocession  was  made  by  an  act  pass- 
ediJItrensby,  (1238.)     Several  documents  which  still  exist  in 
the  private  archives  of  the  Teutonic  order  at  Kon.ng^berg.  and 
esLSy  two,  dated  1249  and  1264,  prove  that,  at  this  period, 
tKshoS  Riga  still  exercised  superiority,  lK.th  temporal  and 
spiruSover  these  Knights  Sword-bearers,  although  tW  were 
unUed  M  the  Teutonic  order,  which  «««  independent  of  these 
bishops.    The  combination  of  these  two  orders  rendered  Uiem  so 
powefful,  that  they  gradually  extended  their  conquests  over  all 
KussJft,  Livonia.  Courlandf  and  Semigallia;  but  they  could 
ne^er  sicciedfaAher  thanto  subject  these  nation,  to  a  rigorous 
servitude,  under  pretence  of  conversion.  .  •       <• 

Core  we  speilk  of  Russia  and  the  other  Eastern  counmes  of 
Europe,  it  wilfbe  necessary  to  turn  <»«' /^nuon  for  aht  le  to 
the  lloiul..  whose  conque/te  and  depjedauon.  e^d^m  Ae 
thirteenth  century,  from  the  extremity  of  northern  Am,  oret 


raiioo  nr.    a.  o.  1074—1300. 


IM 


n  indncfld  Umu  Io  mt«r 

of  the  country ;  and, 

h  of  commerce  which 

ipted  to  introduce  the 

mic  of  SMeberg  in  Hol- 

ission.    He  was  the  first 

isidence  at  the  castle  of 

ications.    Berthold,  his 

«s  of  Christianity,  as 

Is  mission  exposed  him, 

against  the  Livonians. 

hand,  fighting  against 

'ert.    The  priests,  after 

from  Livonia ;  but,  in  a 

arched  into  the  country, 

shop,  who  built  the  city 

f  his  bishopric,  and  after- 

issia  and  Livonia.     The 

of  the  Knights  of  Chritt 

he  third  of  all  the  coun- 

onfirmed  by  Pope  Inno- 

too  itHkk  to  oppose  the 

nrith  the  Teutonic  order 

lie  generals  or  provincial 

imes  of  Heermeuter  and 

confirming  the  union  of 

r  of  the  districts  of  Revel, 

to  Valdemar  II.,  which  the 

lorpat,  had  taken  from  him 

was  made  by  an  act  pass- 

ments  which  still  exist  in 

rder  at  Koningsberg,  and 

prove  that,  at  this  period, 

riority,  both  temporal  and 

irers,  although  they  were 

was  independent  of these 

0  orders  rendered  them  so 

1  their  conquests  over  all 
nigallia;  but  they  could 
lese  nations  to  a  rigorous 
n. 

>ther  Eastern  countries  of 
ar  attention  for  a  little  to 
redations  extended,  in  the 
y  of  northern  Asia,  orer 


Russia  and  the  greater  part  of  Europe.  The  native  country  of 
this  paople  u  found  to  m  those  same  regions  which  they  still 
inhabit  in  our  day,  and  which  are  situated  to  the  north  of  the 
neat  wall  of  China,  between  Eastern  Tartary  and  modern  Buk* 
nana.  They  are  generallv  confounded  with  the  Tartars,  from 
whom  they  diflTer  essentially,  both  in  their  appearance  and  man- 
ners, as  well  wi  in  their  religion  and  political  institutions.  This 
nation  is  divided  into  two  principal  branches,  the  Eluths  or 
(Mots,  better  known  by  the  name  of  Calmucs,  and  the  Moguls, 
properly  so  called.  These  latter,  separated  from  the  Calmucs 
ov  the  mountains  of  Altai,  are  now  subject  to  the  dominion  of 
Uhina. 

The  Moffuls,  scarcely  known  at  present  in  the  history  of  Eu« 
rope,  owe  their  greatness  to  the  genius  of  one  man — the  famous 
Zinghis  Khan.  This  extraordinary  person,  whose  real  name 
was  Temudgin,  or,  according  to  Pallas,  Damutschin,  was  born 
in  the  year  1163,  and  originally  nothing  more  than  the  chief  of 
a  particular  horde  of  Moguls,  who  had  settled  on  the  banks  of 
the  rivers  Onon  and  Kerlon,  and  were  tributary  to  the  empire  of 
Kin.  His  first  exploits  were  against  the  other  hordes  of  Mo- 
guls, whom  he  compelled  to  acknowledge  his  authority.  Em- 
boldened by  sucoMs,  he  conceived  the  romantic  idea  of  aspiring 
to  be  the  conqueror  of  the  world.  For  thin  purpose,  he  assem- 
bled  near  the  source  of  the  river.  Onon,  in  1206,  all  the  chiefs 
of  the  Mogul  hordes,  and  the  generals  of  his  armies.  A  certain 
pretender  to  inspiration,  whom  the  people  regarded  as  a  holy 
man,  appeared  in  the  assembly,  and  deciared  that  it  was  the  will 
of  Ood  that  Temudgin  should  rule  over  the  whole  earth, — that 
all  nations  should  submit  to  him, — nnd  tiiiit  \  (..iceforih  he  should 
bear  the  title  of  Tschinghis-Khan,  or  Mont  [treat  Emperor.*^ 

In  a  short  time,  this  new^onqueror  subi!  ued  the  two  great 
empires  of  the  Tartars ;  one  of  which,  called  aUo  the  empire  of 
Kin,  embraced  the  whole  of  Eastern  Tartary,  i^nd  the  northern 
part  of  China ;  the  other,  that  of  Kara-Kitai.  t>r  the  Khitans,  ex- 
tended  over  Western  Tartary,  and  had  its  capital  at  Kaschgar 
in  Bukharia.^  He  afterwards  attacked  the  Carismian  Sultans 
who  ruled  over  Turkestan,  Transoxiana,  Charasm,  Chora- 
san,  and  all  Persia,  firom  Derbent  to  Irak-Arabia  and  the  Indies. 
This  powerful  monarchy  was  overturned  by  Zinghis-Khan,  in 
the  course  of  six  campai^s ;  and  it  was  during  this  war  that 
the  Moguls,  while  marching  under  the  conduct  of  Toushi,  the 
eldest  son  of  Zing^is-Khan,  vainst  the  Kipiaes  or  Capchacs, 
to  the  north  of  tM  Caspian  »ea,  made  their  first  inroad  into 
the  Russian  empire.  Zinghis,  after  having  subdued  the  w^le 
of  TtdfMtt,  died  in  the  sixty-fifth  year  of  his  age  ( 1227.)    His- 


mm 


wsmm 


M&L'  Mumiv. 


toriiM  hkf  NOMurlMd  in  him  the  trait*  of  •  fiwi  mra,  bom 
to  eominaBd  othtra,  bat  whoM  noblo  qualitiot  won  taraisliod  bjr 
tho  ferocity  of  hia  mturo,  which  took  dolight  in  camogo,  j^un* 
doTi  nnd  doTUtation.  Humanity  dladdora  at  tho  recital  of  the 
inexpretaible  horrors  exercised  ay  this  barbarian,  whose  maxim 
was  to  exterminate,  without  mercy,  all  who  ufleied  the  least  re* 
sistance  to  his  Tictorious  arms. 

The  successors  of  this  Mogul  conqueror  followed  him  in  his 
career  of  victory.  They  aehioTed  the  conouest  of  all  China, 
OTertumed  the  caliphate  of  Bagdat,  and  rendered  the  sultans  of 
Iconium  their  tributaries  **  Octai-Khan,  the  immediate  succes* 
sor  of  Zinghis,  despatched  from  the  centre  of  China  two  pow* 
erful  armies,  the  one  against  Corea,  and  the  other  against  the 
nations  that  lie  to  the  north  and  north-west  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 
This  latter  expedition,  which  had  for  its  chiefs  Gayoult.  son  of 
Octal,  and  Baton,  eldest  son  of  Toushi,  and  grandson  of  Zinghis- 
Khan,  after  having  subdued  all  Kipzak,  penetrated  into  Russia, 
which  they  conquered  in  1237.  Hence  they  spread  over  Poland, 
Silesia,  Moravia,  Hungary,  and  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Adriatic  Sea;  they  plundered  cities,  laid  waste  the  country, 
and  carried  terror  ana  destruction  wherever  ibey  went.^  All 
Europe  trembled  at  the  sight  of  these  barbarians,  who  seemed 
as  if  they  wished  to  make  the  whole  earth  one  vast  empire  of 
desolation.  The  empire  of  the  Moguls  attained  its  highest  point 
of  elevation  under  Cublai,  granuson  of  Zinghis,  towards  the  end 
of  the  tenth  century.  From  south  to  norui,  it  extended  from 
the  Chinese  Sea  and  the  Indies,  to  the  extremity  of  Siberia ; 
and  from  east  to  west,  from  Japan  to  Asia  Minor,  and  the  fron* 
tiers  of  Poland  in  Europe.  China,  and  Chinese  Tartary  formed 
the  seat  of  the  empire,  and  the  residence  of  the  Great  Khan  ; 
while  the  other  parts  of  the  dominions  were  governed  by  princes 
of  the  family  of  Zinghis  Khan,  who  either  acknowledged  the 
Great  Khan  as  their  supreme  master,  or  had  their  own  particular 
kings  and  chiefs  that  paid  him  tribute.  The  principal  subordi- 
nate Khans  of  the  race  of  iSnghis,  were  those  of  Persia,  Zagatai, 
and  Kipxac.  Their  dependence  on  the  Great  Khan  or  emperor 
of  China,  ceased  entirely  on  the  death  of  Cublai  (1294,)  and  the 
power  of  the  Moguls  soon  became  extinct  in  China.* 

As  for  the  Moguls  of  Kipiae,  their  dominion  extended  over 
all  the  Tartar  countries  situated  to  tha  north  of  the  Caspian  and 
tha  Buxine,  as  also  over  Buasia  and  the  Crimea.  Batou-Khan, 
eldaat  aon  of  Tou^i,  was  the  founder  of  thia  dynasty.  Being 
addicted  to  a  wandering  life,  the  Khans  of  Kipnc  enounped  on 
the  banks  of  the  Wolga,  passing  from  one  place  to  another  with 
their  tents  and  flecks,  acewrding  to  the  custom  of  theJjepd  and 


afMU  nwa, 
liM  w«ra  lariiialMd  by 
7hi  in  cmnttg9,  piun* 
•t  th«  recital  of  the 
iriwi,  whoie  maxim 
lo  uflerad  the  leaai  n* 

•r  followed  him  in  hia 
tnoueat  of  all  China, 
maered  the  sultana  of 
;he  immediate  auccea* 
'e  of  China  two  pow* 
the  other  against  the 
It  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 
hiefa  Gayoulc.  son  of 
grandson  of  Zinghis* 
enetrated  into  Russia, 
ey  spread  over  Poland, 
lies  bordering  on  the 
d  waste  the  country, 
ver  they  went.*    All 
rbarians,  who  seemed 
th  one  vast  empire  of 
tained  its  highest  point 
nffhis,  towaHs  the  end 
>rth,  it  extended  from 
extremity  of  Siberia ; 
a  Minor,  and  the  fron- 
'hinese  Tartary  formed 
e  of  the  Great  Khan  ; 
re  governed  by  princes 
Iter  acknowledged  the 
ad  their  own  particular 
The  principtal  subordi- 
lose  of  Persia,  Zagatai, 
treat  Khan  or  emperor 
Cublai  (1294,)  and  the 
t  in  China.* 
minion  extended  over 
rth  of  the  Caspian  and 
Crimea.    Batou-Khan, 
tbia  dynasty.    Being 
r  KipMc  encamped  on 
I  placa  t«  aaotharwkh 
itomoflkaJfapriaad 


riKioD  IT.    A.  ».  MV4— 1300.  Wf 

Tartar  nations.*'    The  principal  aecl  of  thooe  Khaaa  was  ealM 
the  Orani  or  CMtn  Honh  or  the  HortkafKnne,  which ' 


long  an  object  of  the  greatest  terror  to  toe  Russians,  Poles, 
Lithuanians  and  Hungarians.  Its  glory  declined  towards  the 
end  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  entirely  disappeared  under 
the  last  Khan  Aehlnet,  in  Iwl.  A  few  separate  hordes  were 
all  that  remained,  detached  from  the  ffnmd  horde,  such  as  ihoer 
of  Cassan,  Astraean,  Siberia  and  the  Crimea ; — all  of  which  were 
in  their  turn  subdoed  or  extirpnted  by  the  Russians.* 

A  crowd  of  nrinces,  descendants  of  Vlademir  the  Great,  had 
shared  among  mm  the  vast  dominions  of  Russia.  One  of  these 
princes  invested  with  the  dignity  of  Grand  Duke,  exercised  cer^ 
tain  rights  of  superiority  over  tne  rest,  who  nevertheless  acted 
the  part  of  petty  sovereigns,  and  made  war  on  each  other.  The 
capital  of  these  Grand  Dukes  was  Kiow,  which  was  also  reganU 
ed  as  the  metropolis  of  the  empire.  Andrew  I.  prince  of  Suidal, 
having  assumed  the  title  of  Grand  Duke  (llfi?,)  fixed  his  resi- 
dence at  Vlademir  on  the  river  Kliazma,  and  thus  gave  rise  to  a 
kind  of  political  schism,  the  consequences  of  which  were  most 
fatal  to  the  Russians.  The  Grand  Dutchy  of  Kiow,  with  ita 
dependent  principalities,  detached  themselves  by  degrees  from 
the  rest  of  the  empire,  and  finally  became  a  prey  to  the  Litho* 
anians  and  Poles. 

In  the  midst  of  these  divisions  and  intestine  broils,  and  when 
Russia  was  struggling  with  difficulty  against  the  Bulgarians, 
Polowzians,*  and  other  barbarous  tribes  in  the  neighbourhood, 
she  had  the  misfortune  to  be  attacked  by  the  Moguls  under 
Zinghij  Khan.  Toushi,  eldest  son  of  that  conqueror,  having 
marched  round  the  Caspian,  in  order  to  attack  the  Polowzians, 
encountered  on  his  passage  the  Princes  of  Kiow,  who  were 
allies  of  that  people.  The  battle  which  he  fought  (1223,)  on 
the  bunks  of  the  river  Kalka,  was  one  of  the  most  sanguinary 
recorded  in  history.  The  Russians  were  totally  defeated ;  six 
of  their  princes  perished  on  the  field  of  battle ;  and  the  whole 
of  Western  Russia  was  laid  open  to  the  conqueror.  The  Mo- 
guls penetrated  as  far  as  Novogorod,  wasting  the  whole  country 
on  their  march  with  fire  and  sword.  They  returned  by  the  same 
route,  but  without  extending  their  ravages  farther.  In  1S37 
they  made  a  second  invasion,  under  the  conduct  of  Baton,  sob 
of  Toushi,  and  governor  of  the  northern  parts  of  the  Mogid 
empire.  This  prince,  aAer  having  vanquished  the  Polow^ 
lians  and  Bulgarians,  that  is,  the  whole  eonntry  of  Kipaact 
entered  the  north  of  Rnssia,  where  he  took  Rngen  and  Moseoaf, 
and  cut  to  pieces  an  army  of  the  Russians  near  Kolomiia. 
Severat'bther  towns  in  this  part  of  Russia  were  sacked  by  tin 

VOL.  I.  U 


mi. 


eiAivn  ▼• 


MomU.  in  th«  comm«ncein«nt  of  th«  followmg  ye«.  TU 
SSEy  of  Ihe  G«nd  Duk«.  Juri  II.,  per Uhed  in  lb.  ..ck  of  VI*. 
Zmi?;  wd  he  hlm.elf  fell  in  ihe  beltle  which  he  fought  w  th 
UMMoguU  neer  ihe  rirer  Site.  Baton  eilended  hie  conqueeU 
«  NortLn  Ru..i.  a.  far  a.  the  city  Tor-hok.  in  the  territory  of 
Norofforod.     For  .ome  yenr.  he  continued  hit  ra»«ge8  over  the 

whole  of  We.tem  R«"'V,''»""'Tu^  !*  k"  p!„TihU  Je 
Kaminiec  in  Podolia.  Vlademir  and  Halitjch.  F'O'" '^'"  *^ 
may  date  the  fall  of  the  Grand  Dutchy  o  .Kiow,  or  Western 
RuMia.  which,  with  its  dependent  prmcipahtiee  in  the  ffowmg 
century,  came  into  the  possesBion  of  the  tiihuanians  and  Poles. 
As  for  the  Grand  Dutchy  of  Vlademir.  which  comprehended 
sLtern  and  Northern  Russia,  it  was  subdued  by  the  Mogul. 
or  Tartars,  whose  urrible  yoke  it  wore  for  more  than  two 

**"A„"exCo"drnary  person  who  appeared  at  this  disastrou. 
criZ  preserved  that'  part  of  Russia  from  s.nkmg  into    olal 
ruin.     This  was  Prince  Alexander,  son  of  the  Grand  Duke, 
Jaroslaus  II.,  who  obtained  the  epithet  or  surname  of  Netctkt, 
from  a  victorv  which  he  gained  over  the  Knights  of  Livonia 
nZ  the  Neva.  0241.)      Elevated  by  the  Khan  Baloti.  to  the 
dignity  of  Grand  Duki  (1245.)  he  secured  by  his  prudent  con- 
duct,  {is  punctuality  in  paying  tribute,  and  P'"".^'^ ^i''  ^^J 
leiriance  to  the  Mogul  emperors,  the  good  will  of  tiH«se  new 
Zters  of  Russia,  during  h^  whole  reign      When  this  gre. 
prince  died  in  1261,  his  name  was  enrolled  in  their  calendar  of 
Ks      Peter  the  Great  built,  in  honour  of  bis  memory,  a  con- 
Tent  on  the  banks  of  the  Neva,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of 
Alexander  Newski  5  and  the  Empress  Catherine  I;-  'n^t^tuted 
an  order  of  knighthood  that  was  also  culled  after  the  name  of 

'^Po?w!d?  which  wa.  divided  among  several  princes  of  the 
PiMt  dyi^asty,  had  become,  at  the  time  of  which  we  speak,  a 
prey  to  Intestine  factions,  and  exposed  to  the  incursions  of  the 
JSJhbouring  barbarians.  These  divisions,  the  principal  source 
;?  5ll  the  evils  that  afflicted  Poland.  conUnued  down  to  the 
death  of  Boleslaue  II.  (1138,)  who,  havmg  portioned  hia  es- 
STamong  hi.  son.,  ordered  that  the  eldest  should  retain  the 
diiteict  of  Cracow,  under  the  Utle  of  Monarch,  and  that  he 
Sd  exercise  the  right,  of  .uperior  ty  orer  the  prov.nci|il 
Ske.  and  prince.,  hi.  brother..  Thi.  clause,  which  m^ht 
S»e  prevented  the  dismemberment  of  the  .tate.  "wved  only  to 
Undle  the  fUme  of  di^ord  lunong  thew  collegatory  pnacM. 
UUdiaku.,  who  i.  gwiemlly  cowidered  a.  the  •»«>;-' «f»w^ 
MM,  bATii^  .ttempS^  to  di.po«««"  ^  ^"**»«"  ^"^^  ^*^ 


llowing  year.    Th« 

i  in  IM  Mck  or  Vla> 

bich  h«  fought  with 

tended  his  conquest* 

ok,  in  the  territory  of 

his  ravRges  over  the 

others,  he  took  Kiow, 

tM-h.     From  this  we 

f  Kiow,  or  Western 

lities  in  the  following 

ithuanians  and  Poles. 

which  comprehended 

xlued  by  the  Moguls 

e  for  more  than  two 

ed  at  this  disastrous 

>m  sinking  into  total 

of  the  Grand  Duke, 

'  surname  of  Newtki, 

e  Knights  of  Livonia 

c  Khan  Batou,  to  the 

id,  by  his  prudent  con> 

ind  preserving  his  al* 

ood  will  of  those  new 

gn.     When  this  great 

ed  in  their  calendar  of 

'  of  bis  memory,  a  con- 

I  he  gave  the  name  of 

Catherine  I.,  instituted 

lied  af\er  the  name  of 

several  princes  of  the 
of  which  we  speak,  a 
I  the  incursions  of  the 
ns,  the  principal  source 
ontinued  down  to  the 
ving  portioned  his  es- 
Idest  should  retain  the 
Monarch,  and  that  he 
ty  over  the  provincial 
a  clause,  which  might 
le  state,  served  only  to 
M  collegatory  princM. 
aa  the  eldest  of  the** 
brother*  (1146,)  thcf 


nitoD  IT.    A.  p,  lOVi— 1900.  Ml 

lott  in  arm*,  axptlled  him  from  Poland,  and  oblifid  hi*  d»> 
■eendanu  to  content  thamaalve*  with  Sileeia.  Hi*  aon*  founded, 
in  that  country,  numerou*  familiea  of  duka*  and  princes,  wIm 
introduced  German  colonies  into  Silesia;  all  of  which,  in  count 
of  time,  became  subject  to  the  kings  of  Bohemia.  Conrad,  aon 
of  Cnsimir  the  Just,  and  grandson  of  Bolealaus  III.,  wa*  thf 
ancestor  of  the  Dukes  of  Cujavia  and  Maaovia.  It  was  this 
prince  who  called  in  the  assistance  of  the  Teutonic  Knighta 
against  the  Pagans  of  Prussia,  and  established  that  order  in 
the  territory  of  Culm  (1230.) 

The  Moguls,  aAer  having  vanquished  Russia,  took  possea* 
sion  of  Poland  (1340.)  Having  gained  the  victory  at  the  battle 
of  Schiedlow,  they  set  fire  to  Cracow,  and  then  marched  to 
Lignils  in  Silesia,  where  a  numerous  army  of  crusadera  were 
assembled  under  the  command  of  Henry,  duke  of  Breslau. 
This  prince  was  defeated,  and  slain  in  the  action.  The  whole 
of  Sil«»ia,  as  well  as  Moravia,  was  cruelly  pillaged  and  deso- 
lated by  the  Moguls. 

Hungary,  at  this  period,  presented  the  spectacle  of  a  warlike 
and  barbarous  nation,  the  ferocity  of  whose  manners  cannot  be 
better  attested  than  by  the  law*  passed  in  the  reigns  of  Ladia- 
laus  and  Coloman,  about  the  end  of  the  eleventh  and  beginning 
of  the  twelAh  century.  Crimes  were  then  punished  either  with 
the  loss  of  liberty,  er-ff  some  member  of  the  body,  Nuch  as  the 
eye,  the  nose,  the  tongue,  dec.  These  laws  were  published  in 
their  general  assemblies,  which  were  composed  of  the  king, 
the  great  officers  of  the  crown,  and  the  representatives  of  th« 
clergy  and  the  free  men.  All  the  other  branches  of  the  execu- 
tive power  pertained  to  the  kings,  who  made  war  and  peace  at 
their  pleasure ;  while  the  counts  or  governors  of  provincea 
claimed  no  power  eith«v  personal  or  hereditary." 

Under  a  goTemment  M  despotic,  it  was  easy  for  the  kinga 
of  Hungary  to  enlarge  the  boundaries  of  their  states.  Ladi*- 
laus  took  from  the  Qreeks  the  dutchy  of  Sirmium  HOdO,)  com- 
prising the  lower  part  of  Sclavonia.  This  same  prince  extend- 
ed hi*  conquests  into  Croatia,  a  country  which  was  governed 
for  several  age*  bv  the  Slavian  princes,  who  possessed  Upper 
Sclavonia,  and  ruled  over  a  great  part  of  ancient  Illyri^and 
Dalmatia,  to  which  the^  gave  the  name  of  Croatia.  Dirclluaa 
waa  the  first  of  these  prices  that  took  the  title  of  king  (in  964.) 
Demetriu*  Swinimir,  one  of  hi*  succe**ors,  did  homage  to  the 
Pope,  in  order  to  obtain  the  protection  of  the  Holy  See  (1076.) 
The  line  of  these  king*  having  become  extinct  aome  time  after, 
Ladialaos,  whoae  eiater  had  been  married  to  Demetriua  Swini- 
mir, took  adTuitage  of  the  commotion  that  had  ariaen  io  Croatia, 


MK 


•ad  eoneawed  a  gn$x  part  of  that  Idngdom  (1001,)  and  ••• 

Sially  Upper  SelaTonia,  which  was  one  of  it«  dopendeneies. 
omaa  completed  their  conqoeat  in  llOfi,  and  the  aame  year 
1m  was  crowned  at  Belorade  king  of  Croatia  and  Dalnmtia.  In 
«e«rae  of  a  few  years,  he  sabdacd  the  maritime  cities  of  Dal- 
■atia,  such  as  Spidatro,  Trau,  and  Zara,  which  he  took  from 
the  republic  of  Venice."  The  kingdom  of  Rama  or  Bosnia, 
Ml  at  the  same  time  under  his  power.  He  took  the  title  of 
King  of  Rama  (1109;)  andBelall.,  his  successor,  made  over 
the  dutchy  of  Bosnia  to  Ladislaus,  his  younger  son.  The  so- 
vereignty of  the  Kingv  of  Hunsary  was  also  occasionally  ac- 
knowledged bv  the  princes  andlcinjpfs  of  Bulgaria  and  Servia, 
and  even  by  the  Russian  princes  of  Halitsch  and  Wolodimir. 

These  conquests  gave  rise  to  an  abuse  which  soon  proved 
teal  to  Hungary.  The  kings  claimed  for  themselves  the  right 
«f  disposing  of  the  newly  conquered  provinces  in  favour  of  their 
Toonger  sons,  to  vvbom  they  granted  them  under  the  title  of 
datchies,  and  with  the  rights  of  sovereignty.  These  latter  made 
uae  of  their  supreme  power  to  excite  foctionn  and  stir  up  civil  wars. 

The  reign  of  King  Andrew  II.  was  rendered  remarkable  by  a 
revolution  which  happened  in  the  government  (1217.)  This 
wrince  having  undertaken  an  expedition  to  the  Holy  Land,  which 
be  equipped  at  an  extravagant  and  ruinous  expanse,  the  nobles 
availed  themselves  of  bis  absence  to  augment  their  own  power, 
and  usurp  the  estates  and  revenues  of  uie  crown.  Corruption 
had  pervaded  every  branch  of  the  administration ;  and  the  king, 
after  his  return,  made  several  ineffectual  efforts  to  remedy  the 
disorders  of  the  sovemment,  and  recruit  his  exhausted  finances. 
At  length  he  adopted  the  plan  of  assembling  a  general  Diet 
(1S22,)  in  which  was  passed  the  famous  decree  or  Golden  Bull 
which  forms  the  basis  of  that  defective  constitution  which  pre- 
vails in  Hungary  at  this  day.  The  property  of  the  clergy  and 
the  noblesse  were  there  declared  exempt  from  taxes  and  military 
««ss ;  the  nobles  acquired  hereditary  .possession  of  the  royal 

Sants  which  they  had  received  in  recompense  for  their  services ; 
ey  were  freed  from  the  oUigation  of  marching  at  their  own 
expense  on  any  expedition  out  of  the  kingdom ;  and  even  the 
right  of  resistance  was  allowed  them,  in  case  the  king  should 
iiuHbge  any  article  of  the  decree.  It  was  this  king  uso  (An- 
drew IL)  that  conferred  several  important  privileges  and  immu- 
aities  on  the  Saxons,  or  Germans  ot  Transylvania,  who  had  been 
invited  thither  fay  Oeiaa  II.  dwut  the  year  1148. 

Under  the  reign  of  Bala  IV.  (1841,)  Hungary  waa  saddealy 
UHudated  with  an  army  of  Mogula,  commanded  bv  aaveral  chiefii, 
dM  principal  of  whom  were  Baton,  the  son  of  Tooshi,  and  Cb* 


1^' 


Ion  (1091.)  and  ea- 

of  its  dcpeiKieBeies. 

\,  and  the  Mine  year 

itia  and  Dalmatia.    In 

laritime  cities  of  Dal* 

which  he  took  from 

of  Rama  or  Bosnia, 

He  took  the  title  of 

successor,  made  over 

|oanger  son.    The  so- 

also  occasionally  ac- 

Bulgaria  and  Servia, 

itsch  and  Wolodimir. 

se  which  soon  proved 

)r  themselves  the  right 

inces  in  favour  of  their 

lem  under  the  title  of 

ty.    These  latter  made 

Id  and  stir  up  civil  wars. 

idered  remarkable  by  a 

irnment  (1217.)     This 

>  the  Holy  Land,  which 

us  expanse,  the  nobles 

ment  their  own  power, 

le  crown.     Corruption 

stration ;  and  the  icing, 

il  efforts  to  remedy  the 

his  exhausted  finances. 

imbling  a  general  Diet 

decree  or  Golden  Bull 

constitution  which  pre- 

lerty  of  the  clergy  and 

from  taxes  and  military 

ossession  of  the  royal 

[wnae  for  their  services ; 

marching  at  their  own 

dngdom ;  and  even  the 

in  case  the  king  should 

tras  this  king  uso  (An^ 

It  privileges  and  immu- 

isylvania,  who  had  been 

ar  1148. 

Sungary  was  auddanly 
anded  hv  aevaral  chiefii, 
son  of  TsasU,  and  G«i> 


ntwDiT.    A.  B.  1074^1900.  M 

youk,  son  of  the  gnat  Khan  Octai.  The  Hangamnsi  soak  ia 
efleminacy  and  living  in  perfect  saeiirity,  had  Mgleeted  to  pro* 
vide  in  time  for  their  defence.  Having  at  Itegth  rallied  round 
the  banner  of  their  king,  they  pitch^  their  camp  very  nesli* 

Sently  on  the  banks  of  the  Saio,  where  they  were  surpnsed  iiy 
le  Moguls,  who  made  terrible  havoc  of  them.  Coloman,  the 
king's  brother,  was  slain  in  the  action ;  and  the  king  himself 
succeeded  with  difficulty  in  saving  himself  among  the  isles  of 
Dalmatia.  The  whole  of  Hungary  was  now  at  the  mercy  of 
the  conqueror,  who  penetrated  with  his  victorious  troops  into 
Sclavonia,  Croatia,  Dalmatia,  Bosnia,  Servia,  and  Bu^faria; 
every  where  glutting  his  fury  with  the  blood  of  the  people, 
which  he  shed  in  torrents,  lliese  barbarians  seemed  determine 
ed  to  fix  their  residence  in  Hungary,  when  the  news  of  the  death 
of  the  Khan  Octai,  and  the  accession  of  his  son  Ghiyouk  to  dM 
throne  of  China,  induced  them  to  abandon  their  conquest  in  less 
than  three  years,  and  return  ro  the  East  loaded  with  immense 
booty.  On  hearing  this  intelligence,  Bela  ventured  from  his 
place  of  retreat  and  repaired  to  Hungary,  where  he  assembled 
the  remains  of  his  subjects,  who  were  wandering  in  the  forests, 
or  concealed  among  the  mountains.  He  rebuilt  the  cities  that 
were  laid  in  ashes,  imported  new  colonies  from  Croatia,  Bohe- 
mia, Moravia,  and  Saxony;  and,  by  degrees,  restored  life  and 
vigour  to  the  state,  which  had  been  almost  annihilated  by  the 
Moguls. 

The  Empire  of  the  Greeks,  at  this  time,  was  gradually  verg- 
ing towards  its  downfall.  Harassed  on  the  east  by  the  Selju- 
kian  Turks,  infested  on  the  side  of  the  Danube  by  the  Hunga* 
rians,  the  Patzinacites,  the  Uzes  and  the  Cumans ;  *>  and  torn 
to  pieces  by  ^^-.tious  and  intestine  wars,  that  Empire  was  making 
but  a  feebk  lesistance  to  the  incessant  attacks  of  its  enemies, 
when  it  was  suddenly  threatened  with  entire  destruction  by  the 
effects  of  the  fourth  crusade.  The  Emp<!ror  Isaac  Angelus  had 
been  dethroned  by  his  brother,  Alexiud  xA.  (1195.)  who  had 
cruelly  caused  his  eyes  to  be  put  out.  The  son  of  Isaac,  called 
also  Alexius,  found  means  to  save  his  life ;  he  repaired  to  Zara, 
in  Dalmatia  (1203,)  to  implore  the  aid  of  the  Crusaders,  who, 
after  having  assisted  the  Venetians  to  recover  that  rebellious 
city,  were  on  the  point  of  setting  sail  for  Palestine.  The  young 
\lexiu8  offered  to  indemnify  the  Crusaders  for  the  expenses  of 
any  expedition  which  they  might  undertake  in  his  favour ;  he 
gave  them  reason  to  6xpect  a  reunion  of  the  two  churches,  and 
considerable  supplies,  both  in  men  and  money,  to  assist  them  in 
reconquering  the  Holy  Land.  Yielding  to  these  solicitations, 
the  allied  chiefs,  instead  of  passing  directly  to  Syria,  set  sail  for 

14* 


„>»»» 


iaooBjvae« 


OositantiiM^*.    Thev  immedMtely 

pdled  the  orarper,  ana  restored  isMC  to 

liOB  with  hii  eon  Alexias.  .      ,       i. 

Scarcely  bed  the  CroMdere  quitted  Constuitiiiople,  when  a 
Mw  revoIaUon  happened  there.  Another  Alexius,  sumamed 
Ji9uraott/b,  excited  an  insurrection  among  the  Greeks;  and 
karinir  procured  the  death  of  the  Emperors  Isaac  and  Alexius, 
ha  mwirhimself  master  of  the  throne.  The  Cruaaders  imme- 
4iately  returned,  again  laid  siege  to  Constantinople,  which  they 
took  by  assault ;  and  after  having  slain  the  usurper,  they  elected 
a  new  Emperor  in  the  person  of  Baldwin,  Earl  of  Flanders,  and 
MM  of  the  noble  Crusaders.  «  This  event  transferred  the  Greek 
Bmpire  to  the  Latins  (1204.)  It  was  followed  by  a  union  of 
Ae  two  churches,  which,  however,  was  neither  genejral  norper- 
■lanent,  as  it  terminated  with  the  reign  of  the  Latms  at  ton- 

"^Sme,  the  Crusaders  divided  among  themselves  the  pro- 
Tinces  of  the  Greek  Empire,— both  those  which  they  had  al- 
ivady  seized,  and  those  which  yet  remained  to  be  conquered. 
The  greater  part  of  the  maritime  coasw  of  the  Adriatic,  Greece, 
the  Archipelago,  the  Proponlis,  and  the  Euxine ;  the  islands  of 
the  Cyclades  and  Sporades,  and  those  of  the  Adriatic,  were  ad- 
judged  to  the  republic  of  Venice.  Boniface,  Marquis  of  Mont- 
farrat.  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  crusade,  obtained  for  his 
share  the  island  of  Crete  or  Candia,  and  all  that  belonged  to  the 
Empire  beyond  the  Bosphorus.  He  »!"'?'!'"^»»®l*^  ,?»"'*•*  1° 
the  Venetians,  who  took  possession  of  it  in  1207.  The  other 
chiefs  of  the  Crusaders  had  alao  their  portions  of  the  dismem- 
bered  provinces.  None  of  them,  however,  were  to  possess  the 
aountries  that  were  assigned  them,  except  under  the  title  of  vas- 
sals to  the  Empire,  and  by  acknowledging  the  sovereignty  ol 

InThe  midst  of  this  general  overthrow,  several  of  the  Greek 
princes  attempted  to  preserve  the  feeble  remains  of  their  Js.m- 
nire.  Theodore  Lascaris,  son-in-law  of  the  Emperor  Alexius 
III.,  resolved  on  the  conquest  of  the  Greek  provinces  in  Asia. 
He  had  made  himself  master  of  Bithynia,  Lydia.  part  of  the 
coasts  of  the  Archipelago,  and  Phrygia,  and  was  crowned  Em- 
peror at  Nice  in  1206.  About  the  same  period,  Alexius  and 
6«vid  Commonus,  grandsons  of  the  Emperor  Andronicus  1., 
having  taken  shelter  in  Pontus,  laid  there  the  foundation  of  a 
new  Empire,  which  had  for  its  capital  the  city  of  Trebizond. 

At  length  Michael  Angelus  Commenus  took  possession  of 
Duraazo,  which  he  erected  into  a  considerable  state,  extending 
kom  Durazzo  to  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto,  and  comprehending  Epi- 


ItiM*  to  the  cityt  n* 
Ve  taront,  id  eoBjvno- 

osuuitiiiople,  whea  a 
ir  Alexius,  surnamed 
ng  the  Graeka;  and 
n  Isaac  and  Alexius, 
^he  Crusaders  imme- 
iDtinople,  which  they 
usurper,  they  elected 
Earl  of  FlaDuers,  and 
transferred  the  Greek 
lowed  by  a  union  of 
iither  general  nor  per- 
of  the  Latins  at  don- 

g  themselves  the  pro- 
se which  they  had  al- 
ned  to  be  conquered, 
the  Adriatic,  Greece, 
uxine ;  the  islands  of 
the  Adriatic,  were  ad- 
ace,  Marquis  of  Mont- 
isade,  obtained  for  his 
ill  that  belonged  to  the 
rwards  sold  Candia  to 
t  in  1207.    The  other 
anions  of  the  dismem- 
it,  were  to  possess  the 
t  under  the  title  of  vas- 
ing  the  sovereignty  of 

r,  several  of  the  Greek 
»  remains  of  their  £m- 
the  Emperor  Alexius 
eek  provinces  in  Asia, 
lia,  Lydia,  pari  of  tba 
and  was  crowned  Em- 
e  period,  Alexius  and 
nperor  Andronicus  I., 
»re  the  foundation  of  a 
e  city  of  Trebizond. 
ms  took  possession  of 
lerable  state,  extending 
id  comprehending  £pi> 


nuoD  nr.    A.  D.  1074—1300.  Mi 

roa,  Acamank,  Etolia,  and  part  of  Theaaaly.  All  theae  princaa 
aaaumed  the  rank  and  dignity  of  Emperors.  The  most  power- 
ful among  them  waa  Theodore  Lascaria,  Emperor  of  Nice.  Hia 
■accesaors  found  little  difficulty  in  reaaraing,  by  degrees,  their 
soptrierity  oTer  the  Latin  Emperors.  They  reduced  them  at 
last  to  the  single  city  of  Constantinople,  of  which  Michael  Fa- 
leologus.  Emperor  of  Nice,  undertoolc  the  siege ;  and,  with  tha 
assistance  of  the  Genoese  vessels,  he  vtmI^  himself  master  of  it 
in  1261.  Baldwin  U.,  the  last  of  the  lta.m  Emperors,  fled  to 
the  Isle  of  Negropont,  whence  he  pass  ■'i'.  into  Italy ;  and  hia 
conqueror  became  the  ancestor  of  all  the  Emperors  of  the  House 
of  Paleologus,  that  reigned  at  Constantinople  until  the  taking  ot 
that  capital  by  the  Turks  in  1463. 

It  now  remains  for  us  to  cast  a  glance  at  the  revolutions  of 
Asia,  closely  connected  with  those  of  Europe,  on  account  of  the 
crusades  and  expeditions  to  the  Holy  Land.  The  Empire  ik 
the  Seljukian  Turks  had  been  divided  into  several  dynasties  or 
distinct  sovereignties ;  the  Atabeks  of  Irak,  and  a  number  of 
petty  princes,  reigned  in  Syria  and  the  neighbouring  countries ; 
the  Fatimite  Caliphs  of  Egypt  were  masters  of  Jerusalem,  and 
part  of  Palestine,  when  the  mania  of  the  crusades  converted  that 
region  of  the  East  into  a  theatre  of  carnage  and  devastation. 
For  two  hundred  years  Asia  was  seen  contending  with  Europe, 
and  the  Christian  nations  making  the  most  extraordinary  efforts 
to  maintain  the  conquest  of  Palestine  and  the  neighbouring 
states,  against  the  arms  of  the  Mabometans. 

At  length  there  arose  among  the  Mussulmans  a  man  of  su- 
perior genius,  who  rendered  himself  formidable  by  his  warlike 
prowess  to  the  Christians  in  the  East,  and  deprived  them  of  the 
fruits  of  their  numerous  victories.  ^  This  conqueror  was  the 
famous  Saladin,  or  Salaheddin,  the  son  of  Ayoub  or  Job,  and 
founder  of  tho  dynasty  of  the  Ayoubites.  The  Atabek  Noured- 
din,  son  of  Amadoddin  Zenghi,  had  sent  him  into  Egypt  (1168) 
to  assist  the  Fatimite  Caliph  against  the  Franks,  or  Crusaders 
of  the  West.  While  there,  he  was  declared  vizier  and  general 
of  the  armies  of  the  Caliph  ;  and  so  well  had  he  established  his 
power  in  that  country,  that  he  effected  the  substitution  of  the 
Abassidian  Caliphs  in  place  of  the  Fatimites  ;  and  ultimately 
caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  Sultan  on  the  death  of  Noured- 
din  (1171,)  under  whom  he  had  served  in  the  quality  of  lieu- 
tenant. Having  vanquished  Egypt,  he  next  subdued  the 
dominions  of  Noureddin  in  Syria ;  and,  after  having  extended 
his  victories  over  this  provirice,  as  well  as  Mesopotamia,  Assyria, 
Armenia  and  Arabia,  he  turned  his  arms  against  the  Christians 
in  Palestine,  whom  he  had  hemmed  in,  as  it  were,  with  his 


1^' 


t^  cuArm  ▼. 

conqaeitt.     Thewt  princes,  sepuated  into  petty  MTwrngntiat, 
dirided  by  mutual  jealouay,  and  •  pwy  to  the  dittnctione  of 
•mrehy,  Boon  yielded  to  the  Telonr  of  the  heroic  Musjutawn. 
Siebattle  wh&h they  fought  (1187.)  et  HitUn,  neu  Tibene. 
(or  Tabaria.)  wa.  decisiye.    The  Chriatiana  sastained  a  totol 
defeat ;  and  Guy  of  Lueignan,  a  weak  prince  without  talente, 
and  the  last  Kiii  of  Jerusalem,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  con- 
queror.  All  the  cities  of  Palestine  opened  their  gates  to  Saladin, 
either  voluntarily  or  at  the  point  of  the  sword.    J«"»8alem8jtt- 
rendered  after  a  siege  of  fourteen  days.    This  defeat  rekindled 
the  zeal  of  the  Christians  in  the  West ;  and  the  most  powerful 
sovereigns  in  Europe  were  again  seen  conducting  innuroeraWe 
armies  to  the  reUefof  the  Holy  Land.    But  the  talenu  and 
bravery  of  Saladin  rendered  all  their  eflTorts  unavaUing ;  and  it 
was  not  till  after  a  murderous  siege  for  three  years,  that  they 
succeeded  in  reuking  the  city  of  Ptolemais  or  Acre ;  and  thus 
arresting  for  a  short  space  the  total  exterminaUon  of  the  Chris- 
tians in  the  East.  i,  i  •    nu  • 

On  the  death  of  Saladin,  whose  heroism  is  extolled  by  Ohns- 
tian  as  well  as  Mahometan  authors,  his  Empire  was  divided 
among  his  sons.     Several  princes,  his  dependants,  and  known 
by  the  name  of  Ayoubites,  reigned  afterwards  in  Egypt,  Syna, 
Armenia,  and  Yemen  or  Arabia  the  Happy.    These  princes 
quarrelling  and  making  war  with  each  other,  their  territories 
fell,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  under  the  dominion  of  the  Mame- 
lukes.    These  Mamelukes  (an  Arabic  word  which  signifies  a 
sUve)  were  Turkish  or  Tartar  captives,  whom  the  Syrian  mer- 
chants purchased  from  the  Moguls,  and  sent  into  Egypt  under 
the  reign  of  the  Sultan  Saleh,  of  the  Ayoubite  dynasty.     That 
prince  bought  them  in  vast  numbers,  and  ordered  them  to  be 
trained  • .  t\d  exercise  of  arms  in  one  of  the  maritime  cities  of 
Effvpt  '■"  v'rom  his  school  he  raised  them  to  the  highest  offices 
of  trus*  in  the  slate,  and  even  selected  from  them  his  own  Iwdy 
jruavd.     in  a  very  short  time,  these  slaves  became  so  numerous 
ind  so  powerful,  that,  in  the  end,  they  seized  the  government, 
after  haVing  assassinated  the  Sultan  Touran  Shah,  (son  and 
successor  of  Saleh,)  who  had  in  vain  attempted  to  disentangle 
himself  of  their  chains,  and  recover  the  authority  which  they 
had  usurped  over  him.     This  revolution  (1260)  happened  in  the 
very  presence  of  St.  Louis,  who,  having  been  taken  prisoner  at 
the  battle  of  Mansoura,  had  just  concluded  a  truce  of  ten  years 
with  the  Sultan  of  Egypt.     The  Mameluke  Ibeg.  who  was  at 
first  appointed  regent  or  Atabek.  was  soon  after  proclaimed  £>ul- 

%he  doSilion  of  the  Mamelukes  existed  m  Egypt  for  the 


ntioD  Y.    A.  o.  1300— 14fi3. 


168 


» petty  MveMigntiM, 

0  the  distractions  of 
heroic  Mussulman. 

littin.  near  Tiberias 
lans  sustained  a  total 
ince  without  talents, 
le  hands  of  the  con- 
their  gates  to  Saladin, 
rord.  Jerusalem  sur- 
This  defeat  rekindled 
nd  the  most  powerful 
ndttcting  innumerable 
But  the  talento  and 
rts  unavailing ;  and  it 
liree  years,  mat  they 
lis  or  Acre ;  and  thus 
nination  of  the  Chris* 

mis  extolled  by  Chris- 
Empire  was  divided 
pendants,  and  known 
d»  in  Egypt,  Syria, 
_  jpy.    These  princes 
other,  their  territories 
lominion  of  the  Mame- 
irord  which  signifies  a 
whom  the  Syrian  mer- 
sent  into  Egypt  under 
oubite  dynasty.     That 
id  ordered  them  to  be 
f  the  maritime  cities  of 
m  to  the  highest  offices 
■cm  ihem  his  own  body 
!s  became  &o  numerous 
seized  the  government, 
roumn  Shah,  (son  and 
ttempted  to  disentangle 
le  Buihorily  which  they 

1  (1260)  happened  in  the 
;  been  taken  prisoner  at 
led  a  truce  of  ten  years 
eluke  Ibeg,  who  was  at 
m  after  proclaimed  SuU 

isted  in  Egypt  for  the 


space  of  263  yMurs.    Their  numbers  being  constandy  recruited 
byTurkish  or  Circassian  slaves,  they  disposed  of  the  throne  of 
Egypt  at  their  pleasure ;  and  the  crown  generally  fell  to  the 
share  of  the  most  audacious  of  the  sang,  provided  he  was  a  na- 
tive of  Turkistan.    These  Mamelukes  had  even  the  courage  to 
attack  the  Moguls,  and  took  from  them  the  kinsdoms  of  Damas- 
cus and  Aleppo  in  Syria  (1210.)  of  which  the  latter  had  dispos- 
sessed the  Ayoubite  princes.     All  the  princes  of  this  latter 
dynasty,  with  those  of  Syria  and  Yemen,  adopted  the  expedient 
of  submitting  to  the  Mamelukes ;  who,  in  order  to  become  mas- 
ters of  all  Syria,  had  only  to  reduce  the  cities  and  territories 
which  the  Franks,  or  Christians  of  the  West,  still  retained  in 
their  possession.  They  first  attacked  the  principality  of  Antioch, 
which  ihey  soon  conquered  (1268.)     They  next  turned  their 
arms  against  the  county  of  Tripoli,  the  capital  of  which  they 
took  by  assault  (1289.)     The  city  of  Ptolemais  shared  the  same 
fnte ;  after  an  obstinate  and  murderous  siege,  it  was  carried 
sword  in  hand.     Tyre  surrendered  on  capitulation ;  and  the 
Franks  were  entirely  expelled  from  Syria  and  the  East  in  the 
year  1291. 


CHAPTER   VI. 


PERIOD   V. 


Prom  Pope  Boniface  VIII.  to  the  taking  of  Constantinople  by 
the  Turks,  a.  d.  1300—1453. 
At  the  commencement  of  this  period,  the  Pontifical  power 
was  in  the  zenith  of  its  grandeur.  The  Popes  proudly  assumed 
the  title  of  Masters  of  the  Worid  ;  and  asserted  that  their  author- 
ity, by  divine  right,  comprehended  every  other,  both  spiritual 
and  temporal.  Boniface  VlII.  went  even  farther  than  his  pre- 
decessors had  done.  According  to  him,  the  secular  power  was 
nothing  else  than  a  mere  emanation  from  the  ecclesiastical ; 
and  this  double  power  of  the  Pope  was  even  made  an  article  of 
belief,  and  founded  on  the  sacred  scriptures.  "  God  has  in- 
trusted," said  hb,  "  to  St.  Peter  and  his  successors,  two  swords, 
the  one  spiritual,  and  the  other  temporal.  The  former  can  be 
exercised  by  the  church  alone ;  the  other,  by  the  secular  princes, 
for  the  service  of  the  church,  and  in  submission  to  the  will  of 
the  Pope.  This  latter,  that  is,  the  temporal  sword,  is  subordi- 
nate to  the  former ;  and  all  temuorul  authority  necessarily  de- 
pends on  the  spiritual,  which  judges  it;  whereas  God  alone  can 
fudge  the  spiritual  power.    Fmally,"  added  he, "  it  is  absolutely 


OBArrai  ▼!• 

to  the  Popeof  Borne."    ^^'•JSZ«L%  ll\  who  should  visit 
Jubilee  (IMOO  with  Plenwy  h^«l|enw  fc^^^^ 

S;"wIrrn''to^r.nd  fiUed  its  tnnuury  with  theu  pious 

'•?JJ"sSt'«al  power  of  the  Pope- -J^J^^^^^^^^^^ 
the  cle4  W.8  moreo^r  -J^h  J  Sip^red\Ce^ 

dienosed  in  U.e  m^^^^^^^^^^^  Jj^^Jr  pUre  on 

establi8hed%y  them,  who  f"P«""  «"J±7„,Sde  of  dif- 
dues  they  hai  found  -eans"  ^Xto^s  we*re"empowered.  by 
fvrent  denominations.  ^ ''^^f  J  , „  "...pej  nj»in8t  those  who 
means  of  ecclesiastical  censur^.  to  Pjo^ed  «»a.  ^^  ^^ 

should  refuse  to  uay.  .^J«X^"%^XSiical  provinces,  and 
of  the  legates  wlio  resided  in  '^^^to '^^j^^^^  of 

seized  with  avidity  every  occasion  to  «i«n'»  'J«  "^  ^^„ed  a 
the  Pope.  Moreover,  in  «3° V/2*';„\*  ffi  &d  in 
r  eTeroft-?r ;  dp^  o^f  monhs  dispersed 

authority  over  the  temporalities  of  pnnces.  je  mm  ^^ 

terferin/in  »» ^^^^.'l^^'t^i^fnf  somS    o  lay  ?own   their 
all  without    distinction-^njoining  some  toiy^  ^^^ 

arms-receiving  others  ""^e' J^henrprote^tum    r  ^b^^^.^ 

annulling  their  acts  and  proceedi„g8_8U«  ^^ 

court,  and  acting  "  "^''"V  J  l"ropr   They  assumed  the 
the  Popes  is  the  history  of  all  t-u'ope.     V*^y  ^jf 

privilef  of  legitimating  '*»«  ^f"' «/ Jj^^^;;:^^^^^^^  to  ?ax  th^ 
Them  for  the  f  P«"'°%;„*S7 /Srity  o^^^^^^  exer- 

clergy;  *«y  <^^"'««1,^  J'"„tbe^^^^^  royalty  on 

cised  it  over  a  very  great  ^'^y'l'J-^^-' A^  released  subjecte 
those  who  were  ambitious  of  ^w nS  Jomeigns  at  their 
from  their  oath  of  a^^ie«ance ;  dethtone^^^^^^ 


m" 


Yiuos  ▼.    A.  D.  1300—1463. 


i«r 


nan  eiMtare  be  anlnsci 
ipe  published  the  first 
for  all  who  should  visit 
It  Rome.  An  immense 
locked  to  this  capital  of 
jury  with  their  pious 

d  their  jurisdiction  over 
very  day.  by  means  of 
multiplied  exceedingly 
of  Gregory  IX.    They 
of  the  dignities  and  be- 
es at  thei.  pleasure  on 
tors  or  treasurers  were 
ded  the  levying  of  the 
nder  a  multitude  of  dif- 
»r8  were  empowered,  by 
oceed  against  those  who 
pported  by  the  authority 
esiaslical  provinces,  and 
extend  the  usurpation  of 
these  legates  appeared  a 
icant  Orders,  founded  m 
;ion8  of  monks  dispersed 

he  influence  of  the  papal 
inces.     We  find  them  in- 
ssing  their  commands  to 
some  to  lay  down   their 
irotection— rescinding  and 
-summoning  them  to  their 
disputes.     The  history  of 
rope.    They  assumed  the 
kings,  in  order  to  qualify 
Mide  sovereigns  to  tax  the 
sriority  over  all,  and  exer* 
they  conferred  royalty  on 
er ;  they  released  subjects 
[jfoned  sovereigns  at  their 
empires  under  interdict,  to 
ind  them  disposing  of  the 
18  well  as  those  of  bef**^* 
cingdoms  newly  dUcovered ; 
atics;  and  even  of  embolics 
lent  tyrwiny  of  the  Popes. 


Thus,  it  is  obvious  that  the  Court  of  Rome,  at  the  time  of  which 
we  speak,  enjoyed  &  conspicuous  preponderance  in  the  political 
system  of  Europe.    But  in  the  ordinary  course  of  human  af- 
fairs,  this  power,  vast  and  formidable  as  it  was,  began,  from  the 
fourteenth  century,  gradually  to  diminish.    The  mightiest  em- 
pires have  their  appointed  term  ;  and  the  highest  stage  of  their 
elevation  is  often  the  first  step  of  their  decline.     Kings,  be- 
coming more  and  more  enlightened  as  to  their  true  interests, 
learned  to  support  the  rights  and  the  majesty  of  their  crowns, 
against  the  encroachments  of  the  Popes.     Those  who  were 
vassals  and  tributaries  of  the  Holy  See,  gradually  shook  off  the 
yoke ;   even  the  clergy,  who  groaned  under  the  weight  of  this 
spiritual  despotism,  joined  the  secular    princes  in  repressing 
these  abuses,  and  restraining  within  proper  bounds  a  power  which 
was  making  incessant  encroachments  on  their  just  prerogatives. 
Among  the  causes  which  operated  the  downfall  of  the  Pon- 
tifical power,  may  be  ranked  the  excess  of  the  power    itself, 
and  the  abuses  of  it  made  by  the  Popes.     By  issuing  too  often 
their  anathemas  and  interdicts,  they  rendered  them  useless  and 
contemptible ;  and  by  their  haughty  treatment  of  the  greatest 
princes,  they  learned  to  become  inflexible  and  boundless  in  their 
own  pretensions.     An  instance  of  this  may  be  recorded,  in  the 
famous  dispute  which  arose  between  Boniface  VIII.  and  Philip 
the  Fair,  King  of  France.     Not  content  with  constituting  him- 
self judge  between  the  King  and  his  vassal  the  Count  of  Flan- 
ders, that  Pontiff"  maintained,  that  the  King  could  not  exact 
subsidies  from  the  clergy  without  his  permission  ;  and  that  the 
right  of  Regale  (or  the  revenues  of  vacant  bishoprics)  which 
the  Crown  enjoyed,  was  an  abuse  which  should  not  be  tolera- 
ted.'    He  treated  as  a  piece  of  insanity   the  prohibition   of 
Philip  against  exporting  either  gold  or  silvor  out  of  the  king- 
dom ;  and  sent  an  order  to  all  the  prelates  in  France  to  repair 
in  person  to  Some  on  the  1st  of  November,  there  to  advise 
measures  for  correcting  the  King  and  reforming  the  State.     He 
declared,  formally,  that  the  King  was  subject  to  the  Pope,  as 
well  in  temporal  as  spiritual  matters ;  and  that  it  vvas  a  fool- 
ish persuasion  to  suppose  that  the  King  had  no  superior  on 
earth,  and  was  not  dependent  on  the  supreme  Pontiff*. 

Philip  ordered  the  papal  bull  which  contained  these  ex- 
travagant assertions  to  be  burnt ;  he  forbade  his  ecclesiastics  to 
leave  the  realm ;  and  having  twice  assembled  the  States-Ge- 
neral of  the  kingdom  (1302—3.)  he  adopted,  with  their  advice 
and  approbation,  measures  against  these  dangerous  pretensions 
of  the  Court  of  Rome.  The  Three  Estates,  who  appeared  for 
the  first  time  in  these  Assemblies,  declared  themselves  strongly 


oum»  VI. 


io  hfovt  of  the  Kingi  wad  the  independence  of  the  crown.  In 
consequence,  the  exeomraunicition  which  the  Pope  had  threat* 
ened  egminet  the  King  proved  ineflectuel.  Philip  made  hia 
inpeal  to  a  Aiture  aasembiy>  to  which  the  three  orders  of  the 
State  adhered.* 

The  Emperor  Louis  of  Bavaria,  a  prince  of  superior  merit, 
having  incurred  the  censures  of  the  Church  for  defending  the 
rights  and  prerogatives  of  his  crown,  could  not  obtain  amolu- 
tion,  notwithstanding  the  most  humilintinff  condescensions,  and 
thb  :'ff"t  which  he  made  to  resign  the  Imperial  dignity,  and 
surrender  himself,  his  crown  and  nis  property,  to  the  discretion 
of  the  Pope.  He  was  loaded  with  curses  and  anathemas,  after 
a  series  of  various  proceedings  which  had  been  instituted 
against  him.  The  bull  of  Pope  Clement  VI.,  on  this  occasion, 
far  surpassed  all  those  of  his  predecessors.  "  May  God  (said 
he,  in  speaking  of  the  Emperor)  smite  him  with  madness  and 
disease ;  may  heaven  crush  him  with  its  thunderbolts ;  may 
the  wrath  of  Ood,  and  that  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  fall  on 
him  in  this  world  and  the  next ;  may  the  whole  universe  com* 
bine  against  him  ;  may  the  earth  swallow  him  up  alive;  may 
his  name  perish  in  the  first  generation,  and  his  memory  disap- 

Cear  from  the  earth ;  may  all  the  elements  conspire  against 
im ;  may  his  children,  delivered  into  the  hands  of  nis  enemies, 
be  massacred  before  the  eyes  of  their  father."  The  indignity 
of  such  proceedings  roused  the  attention  of  the  princes  and 
states  of  the  Empire ;  and  on  the  representation  of  the  Electo* 
ral  College,  they  thought  proper  to  check  these  boundless  pre* 
tensions  of  the  Popes,  by  a  decree  which  was  passed  at  the  Diet 
of  Frankfort  in  1338.  This  decree,  regarded  as  the  fundamen* 
tal  law  of  the  Empire,  declared,  in  substance,  that  the  Imperial 
dignity  held  only  of  Ood ;  that  he  whom  the  Electors  had 
chosen  emperor  by  a  plurality  of  suffrages,  was,  in  virtue  of  that 
election,  a  true  king  and  emperor,  and  needed  neither  confirma- 
tion nor  coronation  from  the  hands  of  the  Pope ;  and  that  all 
persons  who  should  maintain  the  contrary,  should  be  treated  as 
guilty  of  high  treason. 

Among  other  events  prejudicial  to  the  authority  of  the  Popes, 
one  was,  the  translation  of  the  Pontifical  See  from  Rome  to 
Avignon.  Clement  V.,  archbishop  of  Bordeaux,  lutvinsr  been 
advanced  to  the  papacy  (1305,)  instead  of  repairing  to  Ilorae, 
had  hia  coronation  celebrated  at  Lyons ;  and  thence  he  trans* 
ferred  his  residence  to  Aviffnon  (1909,)  out  of  eomjplaisance 
to  niilip  the  Fair,  to  whom  he  owed  his  elevation.  The  sac* 
ceaeors  of  iJiia  Pope  continued  their  court  at  Avignon  until 
1367,  when  Gregory  XI.  again  removed  the  See  to  Borne. 


ee  of  the  erowa.    In 

the  Pope  had  thtvet- 

'1.     Philip  made  his 

three  onlen  of  the 

ice  of  superior  merit, 

|rch  for  defending  the 

Id  not  obtain  aMolu* 

J'  condescensions,  and 
mperial  dignity,  and 
rty,  to  the  discretion 
s  and  anathemas,  after 
had  been  instituted 
VI.,  on  this  occasion, 
•a.    "  May  Ood  (said 
im  with  madness  and 
ts  thunderbolts;   may 
and  St.  Paul,  fall  on 
whole  universe  com* 
>w  him  up  alire ;  may 
ind  his  memory  disap- 
nents  conspire  against 
le  hands  of  nis  enemies, 
nther."    The  indignity 
ion  of  the  princes  and 
pentation  of  the  Electo* 
ck  these  boundless  pre- 
1  was  passed  at  the  Diet 
arded  as  the  fundamen* 
tance,  that  the  Imperial 
hom  the  Electors  had 
es,  was,  in  virtue  of  that 
eeded  neither  confirroa- 
the  Pope ;  and  that  all 
ry,  should  be  treated  as 

authority  of  the  Popes, 
cal  See  from  Rome  to 
Bordeaux,  liavinff  been 

of  repairing  to  Some, 
;  and  thence  he  trana- 
t,)  oat  of  complaisaoce 
is  eloTation.  The  sac* 
court  at  Arignoa  until 
red  the  See  to  Borne. 


nRioD  V.    A.  Ik  1300—1453.  IM 

This  lojonm  at  Avignon  tended  to  weaken  the  authority^  of  the 
Popes,  and  diminish  the  respect  and  veneration  which  till  then 
haa  been  paid  them.  The  prevailing  opinion  beyond  the  Alpe, 
admitted  no  other  city  than  that  of  Rome  for  the  true  capital  of 
St.  Peter  ;  and  they  despised  the  Popes  of  Avignon  as  alien*, 
who,  besides,  were  there  surrounded  with  powerful  princes,  to 
whose  caprice  they  were  often  obliged  to  yield,  ana  to  make 
condescensions  prejudicial  to  the  authority  they  had  usurped. 
This  circumstance,  joined  to  the  lapse  of  nearly  seventy  yean, 
caused  the  residence  at  Avignon  to  be  stigmatized  by  the  Italiaas, 
under  the  name  of  the  Babyhniih  Captivity.  It  occasioned  alto 
the  diminution  of  tbepapal  authority  at  Rome,  and  in  the  Be* 
clesiastical  States.  The  Italians,  no  longer  restrained  by  the 
presence  of  the  sovereign  pontiffs,  yielded  but  a  reluctant  obe- 
dience to  their  representatives ;  while  the  remembrance  of  their 
ancient  republicanism  induced  them  to  lend  a  docile  ear  to  those 
who  preached  up  insurrection  and  revolt.  The  historian  Riena 
informs  us,  that  one  Nicolas  Qabrini,  a  man  of  great  eloquence, 
and  whose  audacity  was  equal  to  His  ambition,  took  advantage 
of  these  republican  propensities  of  the  Romans,  to  constitute 
himself  master  of  the  city,  under  the  popular  title  of  Tribune 
(1347.)  He  projected  the  scheme  of  a  new  government,  called 
the  Good  Estate,  which  he  pretended  would  obtain  the  accepta- 
tion of  all  the  princes  and  republics  of  Italy ;  but  the  despotic 
flower  which  he  exercised  over  the  citizens,  whose  liberator  and 
awgiver  he  affected  to  be,  soon  reduced  him  to  his  original  in- 
significance ;  and  the  city  of  Rome  again  assumed  its  ancient 
form  of  government.  Meantime  the  Popes  did  not  recover  their 
former  authority  ;  most  of  the  cities  and  states  of  tie  Ecclesi- 
asticai  dominions,  after  having  been  lone  a  prey  to  faction  and 
discord,  fell  under  the  power  of  the  nobles,  who  made  an  easy 
conquest  of  them ;  scarcely  leaving  to  the  Pope  a  vestige  of  the 
sovereign  authority.  It  required  all  the  insidious  policy  of 
Alexander  VI.,  and!  the  vigilant  activity  of  Julius  II.,  to  repair 
the  injury  which  the  territorial  influence  of  the  Pontiffs  had  su^ 
fared  from  their  residence  at  Avignon. 

Another  circumstance  that  contributed  to  humble  the  papal 
authority,  was  the  schisms  which  rent  the  Church,  towards  the 
end  of  the  fourteenth,  and  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
Gregory  XL,  who  had  abandoned  Avignon  for  Rome,  being  dead 
(1378,)  the  Italians  elected  a  Pope  of  their  own  nation,  wIm> 
took  the  name  of  Urban  VI.,  and  fixed  his  residence  at  Rome. 
The  French  cardinals,  on  the  other  hand,  declared  in  fitvour  of 
the  Cardinal  Robert  of  Geneva,  known  by  the  name  of  Clement 
VII.,  who  fixed  his  capital  at  Arignon.  The  whole  of  Olu^ 
yoi..  I.  16 


ji 


11, 


I*' 


h: 


m 


oiurriA  ▼!• 


tendom  wm  di»id«d  betwwn  ihete  two  Popes ;  and  thu  grand 
•ehism  conlinued  from  1078  till  1417.     At  Rome,  Urban  VI. 
waa  iucceeded  by  Boniface  IX.,  Innocent  VII.,  and  Gregory 
XIL;  while  Clement  VII.  had  Benedict  XIII.  for  his  succcMor 
at  Avignon.     In  order  to  terminate  this  schism,  every  expedient 
was  tried  to  induce  the  rival  Popes  to  give  in  their  ubdication  ; 
but  both  having  refuaed,  several  of  the  Cardinals  withdrew  their 
allegiance,  and  assembled  a  council  at  Pisa  (1409.)  where  the 
two  refractory  Popes  were  deposed,  and  the  pontifical  d'gn'ty 
conferred  on  Alexander  V.,  who  was  afterwards  succeeded  by 
John  XXIII.     This  election  of  the  council  only  tended  to  in- 
crease the  schism.     Instead  of  two  Popes,  there  arose  three ; 
and  if  his  Pisan  Holiness  gained  parti.sans,  the  Popes  of  Kome 
and  Avignon  contrived  also  to  maintain  each  a  number  of  sup- 
porters.    All  these  Popes,  wishing  to  maintain  their  rank  and 
dignity  with  that  splendour  and  magnificence  which  iheir  pre- 
decessors had  displayed  before  the  schism,  set  themselves  to 
invent  new  means  of  oppressing  the  people ;  hence  the  immense 
number  of  abuses  and  exactions,  which  subvened  the  discipline 
of  the  church,  and  roused  the  exasperated  nations  against  the 

court  of  Rome.  ,,.-,.  /ni,4\ 

A  new  General  Council  was  convoked  at  Constance  (1414) 
by  order  of  the  Emperor  Sigismund ;  and  it  was  there  that  the 
maxim  of  the  unity  and  permanency  of  Councils  was  established, 
as  well  as  of  its  superiority  over  the  Pope,  in  nil  that  pertains 
to  matters  of  faith,  to  the  extirpation  of  schism,  and  the  relor- 
mation  of  the  church  both  in  its  supreme  head,  and  m  us  subor- 
dinate members.     The  grand  schism  ^yas  here  terminated  by 
the  abdication  of  the  Roman  pontiff,  and  the  deposition  of  those 
of  Pisa  and  Avignon.     It  was  this  famous  council  that  gave 
their  decision  against  John  Hubs,  the  Reformer  of  Bohemia, 
and  a  follower  of  the  celebrated  Wickliff.     His  doctrines  were 
condemned,  and  he  himself  burnt  at  Constance ;  as  was  Jerome 
of  Progue,  one  of  his  most  zealous  partisans.     As  to  the  mea- 
sures that  were  taken  at  Constance  for  effecting  the  reformation 
of  the  Church,  they  practically  ended  in  nothing.     As  their 
main  object  was  to  reform  the  court  of  Rome,  by  suppressing 
or  limiting  the  new  prerogatives  which  the  Popes  for  several 
cenumes  had  usurped,  and  which  referred,  among  other  things, 
t«  the  subject  of  benefices  and  pecuniary  exactions,  all  those 
who  had  an  interest  in  maintaining  these  abuses,  instantly  set 
thtmteives  to  defeat  the  proposed  amendments,  and  elude  re- 
drasa.    The  Council  had  formed  a  committee,  composed  of  the 
deputies  of  different  nations,  to  advise  means  for  accomplishing 
thu  nfonaation,  which  the  whole  world  so  nrdenUy  deaired. 


•• ;  and  thia  grand 

.t  Rome,  Urban  VI. 

VII.,  and  Gregory 

III.  for  his  Auccetsor 

liam,  every  expedient 

in  their  abdication ; 

linaU  withdrew  their 

[sa  (1409,)  where  the 

le  pontifical  dignity 

wards  succeeded  by 

:il  only  tended  to  in- 

there  arose  three ; 

I,  the  Popes  of  Rome 

ich  a  number  of  sup- 

intain  their  rank  and 

snce  which  their  pre- 

m,  set   themselves  to 

hence  the  immense 

bverted  the  discipline 

1  nations  against  the 

at  Constance  (1414) 
1  it  was  there  that  the 
incils  was  established, 
e,  in  all  that  pertains 
ichism,  and  the  refer* 
lead,  and  in  its  subor* 
is  here  terminated  by 
;he  deposition  of  those 
>us  council  that  gave 
Reformer  of  Bohemia, 
His  doctrines  were 
tance ;  as  was  Jerome 
Sana.  As  to  the  mea- 
ecting  the  reformation 
n  nothing.  As  their 
Rome,  by  suppressing 
the  Popes  for  several 
I,  amon^  otlier  thinga, 
ry  exactions,  all  ihoae 
e  abuses,  inatantly  set 
imenta,  and  elude  re« 
ittee,  compoaed  of  the 
ana  for  accompliahing 

so  ardently  deaired. 


riKioD  ▼.    A.  D.  1300— 14A3. 


wn 


Thia  committee,  known  bv  the  name  of  the  Colkgt  of  Eifimmrt, 
had  already  made  considerable  progreae  in  their  taak,  when  a 
question  was  started.  Whether  it  waa  proper  to  proceed  to  any 
reformation  without  the  consent  and  co-operation  of  the  viaible 
Head  of  the  Church  7  It  waa  carried  in  the  negative,  through  the 
intrigues  of  the  cardinals ;  and,  before  they  could  accompliah 
this  salutary  work  of  reformation,  the  election  of  a  new  Pope 
had  taken  place  (1417.)  The  choice  fell  on  Otho  de  Colonna, 
who  assumed  the  name  of  Martin  V.,  and  in  conformity  with  a 
previous  decision  of  the  council,  he  then  laid  before  them  a 
scheme  of  reform.  This  proceeding  having  been  disapproved 
by  the  difi'erent  nations  of  Europe,  the  whole  matter  waa 
remitted  to  the  next  council ;  and  in  the  meanwhile,  they  did 
nothing  more  than  pass  some  concordats,  with  the  new  Pope, 
as  to  what  steps  they  should  take  until  the  decision  of  the  ap- 
proaching council. 

This  new  council,  which  was  assembled  at  Basle  (1431)  by 
Martin  V.,  resumed  the  suspended  work  of  reformation.  The 
former  decrees,  that  a  General  Council  wus  superior  to  the  Pope, 
and  could  not  be  dissolved  or  prorogued  except  by  their  own 
free  consent,  were  here  renewed  ;  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
reserves,  reversions,  annats,  and  other  exactions  of  the  Popes, 
were  regularly  abolished.  The  liberty  of  appeals  to  the  Court 
of  Rome,  was  also  circumscribed.  Eugenius  IV.,  successor  to 
Martin  V.,  alarmed  at  the  destruction  thus  aimed  at  his  author- 
ity, twice  proclaimed  the  dissolution  of  the  Council.  The  first 
dissolution,  which  occurred  on  the  17th  of  December  1431,  waa 
revoked,  at  the  urgent  application  of  the  Emperor  Sigismund, 
by  a  bull  of  the  same  Pope,  issued  on  the  loth  of  December 
1433.  In  this  he  acknowledged  the  validity  of  the  Council, 
and  annulled  all  that  he  had  formerly  done  to  invalidate  its  au- 
thority. The  second  dissolution  took  jplace  on  the  1st  of  Octo- 
ber 1437.  Eugenius  then  transferred  the  Council  to  Ferrara, 
and  from  Ferrara  to  Florence,  on  pretext  of  his  negotiating  a 
union  with  the  Qreek  church.  This  conduct  of  the  Pope  oc- 
casioned a  new  schism.  The  prelates  who  remained  at  Basle, 
instituted  a  procedure  against  him ;  they  first  auapended  him 
for  contumacy,  and  finally  deposed  him.  Amadeua  VIII.,  Bx- 
duke  of  Saxony,  was  elected  in  hia  place,  under  the  name  of 
Felix  v.,  and  recognised  by  all  the  murtisans  of  the  Council  as 
the  legitimate  Pope.  Thia  latter  schiam  laated  ten  yeara.  Fe- 
lix V.  at  length  gave  in  hia  demiaaion ;  and  the  Council,  which 
had  withdrawn  from  Baale  to  Lauaanne,  terminated  its  aittinga 
in  1449. 

The  French  nation  adopted  several  of  the  decrees  of  the 


in 


euAmt  VI. 


1- 


Ooaacil  of  BmI«  in  the  famous  PragoMlic  Suction,  which 
Cktrloa  VII.  cauud  to  be  drawn  up  at  Bourgee  (1438;)  and 
vHhoae  stipuiatione  eerved  aa  the  Muie  of  what  ia  called  the 
Idktrtiti  oftht  OaUkan  Church.  The  example  of  the  French 
WM  speedfilv  followed  by  the  Oermane,  who  acceded  to  the»e 
^•creet,  at  the  Diet  of  Afayence  in  1439.  The  Court  of  Rome 
M  length  regained  a  part  of  those  honourable  and  liicrnlive  rights 
of  which  the  Council  of  Basle  had  deprived  them,  by  tho  con- 
cordats which  the  Germans  concluded  (1448)  with  Nicholas  V., 
and  the  French  (1516)  with  Leo  X.  The  Councils  of  which 
we  have  now  spoken,  tended  materially  to  limit  the  exorbitant 
power  of  the  Roman  pontifls,  by  giving  sanction  to  tlie  princi- 
ple which  establibhed  the  superiority  of  General  Cmincils  over 
the  Popes.  This  maxim  put  a  check  to  the  enterpi  Mug  ninbi* 
tton  of  the  Court  of  Rome  ;  and  kings  availed  lhemMel\c.<i  of  it 
tu  recover  by  degrees  the  prerogatives  of  their  crowns.  The 
Popes,  moreover,  sensible  of  their  weakness,  and  of  tlie  m-ed 
they  had  for  the  protection  of  the  sovereigns,  learned  to  treat 
them  with  more  attention  and  respect. 

At  length  the  new  light  which  began  to  dawn  about  the  four- 
teenth century,  hastened  on  the  progress  of  this  revolution,  by 
E dually  dissipating  the  darkness  of  superstition  into  which 
nations  of  Europe  were  almost  universally  sunk.  In  tho 
midst  of  the  distractions  which  agitated  the  Empire  and  the 
Church,  and  duting  the  papal  schism,  several  learned  nnd  in- 
irapid  men  made  their  oppearance,  who,  while  invesitigatingthe 
oiriyin  and  abuse  of  the  new  power  of  the  Popes,  hnd  tlie  courage 
to  revive  the  doctrine  of  the  ancient  canons,  to  enligiiten  the 
minds  of  sovereigns  as  to  their  true  rights,  nnd  to  exuniine  with 
care  into  the  justs  limits  of  the  sacerdotal  authority.  Among 
the  first  of  these  reformers  was  John  of  Paris,  a  famous  Do- 
minican, who  undertook  the  defence  of  Philip  the  Fair,  King  of 
France,  against  Pope  Boniface  VIII.  His  example  was  follow- 
ed by  the  celebrated  poet  Dante  Alighieri,  who  took  the  part  of 
the  Emperor  Louis  ot  Bavaria  against  the  Court  of  Rome.  Mar- 
ailo  de  Padua,  John  de  Janduno,  William  Ockam,  Leopold  de 
Babenberg.  dec.  marched  in  the  track  of  the  Italian  poet ;  and 
among  the  crowd  of  writers  that  signalized  themselves  after  the 
grand  achiam,  three  French  authors  particularly  distinguished 
diemaelves,  Peter  d'Ailly,  Nicholas  de  Clemange,  and  John 
Oerson,  whose  writin|[8  met  with  general  applause.  Most  of 
tlieae  literary  productions,  however,  were  characterized  by  bad 
tMte.  The  pniloeophy  of  Aristotle,  studied  in  Arabic  transla- 
tions, and  disfigurea  by  scholastic  subtleties,  reigned  in  all  the 
aehooU,  impoaed  its  fettan  on  the  humao  mind,  and  nearly  ex< 


m. 


raitoD  T.    A.  D.  1300—1443. 


in 


Aic  Suclion,  which 

lurm  (1438;)  Mid 

r  What  U  called  th« 

ample  of  the  French 

ho  acceded  to  theie 

The  Court  of  Rome 

le  and  lucrative  rights 

ed  them,  by  tho  con- 

I)  with  Nicholns  V., 

e  Councils  of  which 

0  limit  the  exorbitant 

anction  to  the  princi- 

lenerol  Councils  over 

he  enterpi  *\ng  nmbi- 

ailed  ihemselvc^i  of  it 

f  thuir  crown."".     The 

less,  and  of  the  need 

igns,  learned  to  treat 

dawn  about  the  four- 
of  this  revolution,  by 
persiition  into  which 
er-xally  sunk.  In  the 
|d  the  Empire  and  the 
veral  learned  nnd  in- 
>vhile  inveiitigatinglhe 
Popes,  had  the  courage 
nons,  to  enligliten  the 
8,  nnd  to  examine  with 
;al  authority-  Among 
f  Paris,  a  famous  Do- 
'hilip  the  Fair,  King  of 
is  example  was  fullow- 
•i,  who  took  the  part  of 
s  Court  of  Rome.  Mar- 
m  Ockam,  Leopold  de 
f  the  Italian  poet ;  and 
sd  themselves  after  the 
rticularly  distinguished 
Clemange,  and  John 
ttl  applause.  Most  of 
R  characterized  by  bad 
died  in  Arabic  transla- 
ities,  reigned  in  all  the 
a  raind,  and  nearly  ex< 


tiBftdihad  cfwy  veitif*  of  umAiI  knowkdft.  TIm  bslUt  l«i- 
traa  wn  qnii*  nag leetad,  and  m  yet  bad  iMd  no  lattra  oa  th* 
■eimieea.  SonMUmet,  howaver,  gmiua  broke  with  •  tnoaiant 
aplmdour  throofh  tb«  darkneaa  of  thii  moral  boriion ;  and 
aevonl  ettraordinary  p«non8(  deapiaing  th<  vain  cavila  of  the 
oehools,  began  to  atuoy  truth  in  the  volume  of  natura,  and  to 
copy  afier  tne  beautiful  modela  of  antiquity.  Such  was  Roger 
Becon  {1964,)  an  Engliahman,  and  a  Franeiacan  fHar,  who  hae 
become  so  famous  by  nia  discovrriea  in  chemistry  and  mechani- 
cal philosophy.  Dante  (1931f)  nurtured  in  the  spirit  of  the  an- 
cients, was  the  fint  that  undertook  to  raflne  the  Italian  language 
into  poetry,  and  gave  it  the  polish  of  elegance  and  grace  in 
his  compositions.  He  was  succeeded  by  two  other  celebratad 
authors,  Petrarca  and  Boccacio  (1374-5.) 

The  period  of  which  we  speak  gave  Urth  to  tevenl  new  in- 
ventions, which  proved  useful  auxiliaries  to  men  of  genius,  and 
tended  to  accelerate  the  progress  of  knowledge,  letten,  and  arts. 
Amon^  the  principal  of  these  may  be  mentioned  the  invention 
of  wriung  pafier,  oil-painting,  printing,  gunpowder,  and  the  ma- 
riner's compass ;  to  the  eflects  of  which,  Europe,  in  a  jgfieat 
measure,  owes  its  civilixation,  and  the  new  order  of  tmnga 
which  appeared  in  the  fiHeenth  century. 

Before  the  invention  of  paper  from  linen,  parchment  was  gen- 
erally used  in  Europe  for  the  transcribing  or  books,  or  the  draw- 
ing out  of  public  deeds.  Cotton' paper,  which  the  Arabs  brought 
from  the  East,  was  but  a  poor  remedy  for  the  scarceness  and 
dearth  of  parchment.  It  would  appear,  that  the  invention  of 
paper  from  linen,  and  the  custom  of  using  it  in  Europe,  is  not 
of  older  date  than  the  thirteenth  century.  The  famous  Mont- 
faucon  acknowledges,  that,  in  spite  of  all  his  researches,  both  in 
France  and  Italy,  ne  could  never  find  any  manuscript  or  char- 
ter, written  on  our  ordinary  paper,  older  than  the  year  1270, 
the  time  when  St.  Louis  died.  The  truth  is,  we  know  neither 
the  exact  date  of  the  invention  of  this  sort  of  paper,  nor  the  name 
of  the  inventor.'  It  is  certain,  however,  that  the  manufacture 
of  paper  from  cotton  must  have  introduced  that  of  paper  from 
linen ;  and  the  only  question  is,  to  determine  at  what  time  the 
use  of  linen  became  so  common  in  Europe,  as  to  lead  us  to  sup- 
pose they  might  convert  its  rags  into  paper.  The  cultivation 
of  hemp  and  flax  being  originally  peculiar  to  the  northern  coun- 
tries, it  is  probable  that  the  first  attempts  at  making  paper  of 
linen  rags  were  made  in  Germany,  and  the  countries  abounding 
in  flax  and  hemp,  rather  than  in  the  southern  provinces  of  Eu- 
rope. The  most  ancient  manufactory  of  paper  from  linen  to  be 
met  with  in  Oermany,  was  established  at  Nuremberg  (1390.) 

15  * 


1 


IH 


muPTiH  n. 


*Th»  InvtQliion  of  oil-punting  is  genenlly  tseribed  to  the  two 
kntbon  Van-Eick,  the  younger  of  whom,  known  by  Uie  name 
of  John  of  Bruges,  had  gainra  ccmsiderable  celelwity  about  the 
end  of  the  fourteenth  century.  There  is,  howerer,  reason  to 
bdJere  that  this  invention  is  of  an  older  date.  There  are  two 
antkors  who  have  carried  it  back  to  the  eleventh  century,  viz. 
Thoophilus  and  Eracllus,  whose  works  in  manuscript  have  been 
neserved  in  the  library  at  Wolfienbiittel,  and  in  thar  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge ;  and  who  speak  of  this  art  as  already  known 
in  their  tiroes.  According  to  them,  all  sorts  of  colours  could  be 
mixed  up  with  linseed  oil,  and  employed  in  painting;  but  they 
agree  as  to  the  inconvenience  of  applying  this  kind  of  painting 
to  image*  or  portraits,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  in  drying 
colours  mixed  with  oil.  Admitting  the  credibility  of  these  two 
authors,  and  the  high  antiquity  of  Uieir  works,  it  would  appear, 
nevertheless,  thai  uiey  made  no  great  use  of  this  invention  ; 
whether  it  may  be  that  painters  preferred  to  retain  their  i'or- 
mer  mode,  or  that  the  difficulty  of  drying  oil  colours  had  dis- 
cooraged  them.  It  is,  however,  too  true,  that  the  finest  inven- 
tions have  often  languished  in  unmerited  neglect,  long  before 
men  had  learned  to  reap  any  adequate  advantage  from  them. 
Were  the  Van-Eicks  the  first  that  practised  this  style  of  paint- 
ing <  Or  did  John  of  Bruges,  the  younger  of  the  brothers,  and 
who  carried  it  to  the  highest  degree  of  perfection,  invent  some 
mixture  or  composition  for  increasing  the  exsiccative  qualities 
•f  linseed  or  nut  oil ;  especially  with  regard  to  colours  not  easily 
dried  ?  It  belongs  to  connoisseurs  and  artists  to  examine  these 
questions,  as  well  as  to  decide  whether  the  pictures,  alleged  to 
have  been  painted  in  oil-colours  before  the  time  of  the  Van- 
Eicks,  were  executed  with  any  degree  of  perfection  in  that  style 
of  painting.'  This  invention  totally  changed  the  system  and 
the  principles  of  the  art  of  painting.  It  gave  birth  to  rules  as 
to  light  and  shade,  and  procured  modern  painters  one  advantage 
over  the  ancients,  that  of  rendering  their  works  much  more 
durable. 

One  of  the-  most  important  inventions  is  that  of  printing ; 
which  was  borrowed,  it  would  appear,  from  the  art  of  engraving 
on  wood ;  while  this  latter  owes  its  origin  to  the  moulding  or 
imprinting  of  common  cards,  which  seems  to  have  suggested  the 
first  idea  of  it.  The  use  of  cards  was  borrov/ed  from  Italy ; 
though  we  find  this  custom  established  in  Germany  soon  after 
die  commencement  of  the  fourteenth  century,  where  card- 
makers  formed  a  distinct  trade,  about  four  and  twenty  years  be- 
fore the  invention  of  printing.  It  is  probable  that  the  Germans 
were  the  first  who  designed  models  and  proper  casts  for  the  im* 


•m, 


y  ueribad  to  the  two 
known  by  the  name 
le  celebrity  about  the 
I,  howerer,  reason  to 
Idate.    There  are  two 
lermth  century,  viz. 
maniucript  have  been 
nd  in  that  or  Trinity 
art  as  already  known 
irts  of  coloun  could  be 
in  painting;  but  they 
this  kind  of  painting 
e  difficulty  in  drying 
redibility  of  these  two 
orks,  it  would  appear, 
ise  of  this  invention  ; 
ed  to  retain  their  i'or- 
\g  oil  colours  had  dis- 
,  that  the  finest  inren- 
id  neglect,  long  before 
tdvantage  from  them, 
sed  this  style  of  paint- 
er of  the  brothers,  and 
terfection,  invent  some 
le  exsiccative  qualities 
ird  to  colours  not  easily 
rtists  to  examine  these 
the  pictures,  alleged  to 
;  the  time  of  the  Van- 
'  perfection  in  that  style 
lianged  the  system  and 
:  gave  birth  to  rules  as 
painters  one  advantage 
leir  works  much  more 

is  is  that  of  prioting; 
)m  the  art  of  engraving 
gin  to  the  moulding  or 
is  to  have  suggested  the 

borrov/ed  from  Italy; 
in  Germany  soon  after 

century,  where  card- 
ir  and  twenty  years  be- 
bable  that  the  Germans 
proper  casts  for  the  im- 


■"1? 


nuoo  V.    A.  0. 1900—1.453. 


Iff 


pivssion  of  cards.'  Ths  desire  of  gain,  suggested  to  these 
caidHnakers  the  idea  of  engrtving  on  wood,  after  the  same 
manner,  all  kinds  of  figures  or  scenes  from  Sacred  History, 
accompanied  with  legends,  or  narratives,  intended  to  exphun 
their  meaning.  It  was  fr«>m  these  legends,  printed  in  smgle 
folios,  and  published  also  in  die  form  of  books,  or  rather  of  im- 
pressions from  engravings  on  solid  blocks  of  wood,  that  the  art 
of  typography  took  its  origin.^  This  wonderful  art,  to  which 
Europe  owes  its  astonishing  progress  in  the  sciences,  consists 
of  two  distinct  inventions, — that  of  the  moveable  typet,  and  that 
of  the  font.  The  former  belongs  to  John  Gutenl>erg,  a  gentle- 
man of  Mayence,  who  made  his  first  attempt  in  moveable  types 
at  Strasburg,  in  1436 ;  the  other,  which  is  generally  attributed 
to  Peter  Schcefier  of  Gemsheim,  took  place  at  Mayence  in  14fi2. 
Gutenberg  resided  at  Strasburg,  from  1424  till  1446.  Being  a 
noble  senator  of  that  city,  he  married  a  lady  of  rank ;  and  during 
the  twenty  years  of  his  residence  there,  he  cultivated  all  sorts 
of  occult  arts,  especially  that  of  printing..  It  was  chiefly  in  re- 
ference to  this  latter  art  that  he  contracted  an  acquaintance  with 
several  of  his  wealthy  fellow-citizens,  one  of  whom,  named 
Andrew  Drizehn,  having  died,  his  heirs  brought  an  action  against 
Gutenberg  on  account  of  some  claims  which  they  laid  to  his 
charge.  The  magistrate  ordered  an  inquiry  to  be  instituted,  the 
original  copy  of  which,  drawn  up  in  1439,  was  discovered  by 
Schoepflin  (1745)  in  the  archives  of  the  city,  and  is  still  preserv- 
ed in  the  public  library  at  Strasburg.  According  to  this  au- 
thentic document,  it  appears,  that  from  the  year  1436,  there 
existed  a  printing-press  at  Strasburg,  under  the  direction  of 
Gutenburg,  and  in  the  house  of  Andrew  Drizehn,  his  associate ; 
that  this  press  consisted  of  forms,  that  were  fastened  or  locked 
by  means  of  screws  ;  and  that  the  types,  either  cut  or  engraved, 
which  were  enclosed  within  these  forms,  were  moveable.' 

Gutenburg,  after  his  return  to  Mayence,  still  continued  his 
typographical  labours.  While  there,  he  contrpcted  an  acquaint- 
ance with  a  new  associate  in  the  exercise  of  his  art  (1445) — the 
famous  John  Faust,  a  citizen  of  Mayence.  This  second  alliance 
continued  only  five  years  ;  and  it  is  within  this  interval,  as  is 
generally  supposed,  that  the  invention  of  the  font,  or  ca^^ting  of 
types,  should  be  placed  ;  as  well  as  that  of  the  die  and  the  mould 
or  matrix,  by  the  help  of  which  the  art  of  typography  was  brought 
nearly  to  its  present  state  of  perfection.!"  Some  disputes,  which 
had  arisen  between  these  new  assobiates,  having  dissolved  their 
partnership,  Faust  obtained  the  press  of  Guteni^rg,  with  all  its 
printing  apparatus,  which  had  fallen  to  him  by  sequestration. 
Gutenberg,  however  fitted  up  another  press,  and  continued  to 


\n 


eBJomn. 


Brint  till  the  time  of  his  deeth,  i»  1468.    Not  one  of  the  booh* 
which  issued  from  the  prau  of  this  celebrated  m|D,  either 
at  StTMburg  or  Meyence,  bears  the  name  of  th«  »Tentof,wthe 
date  of  the  unpression ;  whether  it  was  that  Oittenberi:  made  a 
aeciet  of  his  invention,  or  that  the  prejudices  ^  dM  cast  to  which 
he  belonged  prevented  him  from  boastmg  of  his  discovery. 
Faust,  on  the  contrary,  no  sooner  saw  himself  master  of  Outen- 
berir's  presses,  than  he  became  ambitious  of  notoriety,  an  ex- 
ample  of  which  he  gave  by  prefixing:  his  name  and  that  of  Peter 
SchoBffer  to  the  famous  Psalter,  which  they  published  in  1467. 
The  arts  of  which  we  have  just  spoken,  in  all  probahility, 
suggested  the  idea  of  engraving  on  copper,  of  which  we  con 
discover  certain  traces  towards  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury.   The  honour  of  this  invention  is  generally  ascribed  to  a 
goldsmith  of  Florence,  named  Maso  Finiguerra,  who  is  supposed 
to  have  made  this  discovery  about  the  year  1460,  while  engrav- 
ing  figures  on  silver  plate.     Baccio  Baldini,  another  Florentine, 
Andrew  Montegna,  and  Mark  Antony  Raimondi,  both  Italians, 
followed  in  the  steps  of  Finiguerra,  and  brought  this  art  to  a 
high  degree  of  perfection.     There  is,  however,  some  cause  to 
doubt  whether  Finiguerra  was  exactly  the  first  to  whom  the 
idea  of  this  sort  of  engraving  occurred ;  since,  in  diHerent  cabi- 
nets in  Europe,  we  find  specimens  of  engraving  on  copper,  of  a 
date  earlier  than  what  has  been  assigned  to  Finiguerra.    It, 
however,  the  glory  of  this  invention  belongs  in  reality  to  the 
Italians,  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  art  of  engraving  <>]»  copper, 
as  well  as  on  wood,  was  cultivated  from  Us  infancy,  and  brought 
to  perfection,  in  Germany.    The  first  native  engravers  m  that 
country  who  are  known,  either  by  their  names  or  their  signa- 
tures, in  the  fifteenth  century,  were  Martin  Schoen,  a  painter  and 
engraver  a'.  Colmar,  where  he  died  in  I486;  the  two  Israels 
Von  Mechein,  father  and  son,  who  resided  at  Bockholt,  in  West- 
phalia;  and  Michael  Wolgemuth  of  Nuremberg,  the  master  of 
the  celebrated  Albert  Durer,  who  made  so  conspicuous  a  figure 
about  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  and  begmnmg  of  the  sixteenth 

^NeSto  the  invention  of  printing,  there  is  no  other  that  so 
.  much  arrests  our  attention  as  that  of  gunpowder,  which,  by  in- 
troducing artillery,  and  a  new  method  of  fortifying,  attacking, 
and  defending  cities,  wrought  a  complete  change  in  the  whole 
art  and  tactics  of  war.  This  invention  comprises  several  disco- 
veries which  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish  from  each  other.  1 
The  discovery  of  nitre,  the  principal  ingredient  in  gunpowder, 
and  the  cause  of  its  detonation.  2.  The  mixture  of  nitre  with 
sulphur  and  charcoal,  which,  properly  speaking,  forms  the  in- 


I 


r^^AV*^"^'. 


'-'■^•:''^t, 


ot  OB*  of  the  books 

Icbnted  man,  either 

f  thtiBTentor,orthe 

t  Qnttobng  made  a 

at  the  caat  to  which 

of  hia  discovery. " 

ilfmaster  of  Oaten- 

of  notoriety,  an  ex- 

e  and  that  of  Peter 

published  in  1467. 

in  all  probability, 

ir,  of  which  we  con 

!  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 

enerally  ascribed  to  a 

lerra,  who  is  supposed 

r  1460,  while  engrav- 

li,  another  Florentine, 

imondi,  both  Italians, 

brought  this  art  to  a 

wever,  some  cause  to 

le  first  to  whom  the 

ince,  in  different  cabi- 

raving  on  copper,  of  a 

id  to  Finiguerra.     If, 

longs  in  reality  to  the 

engraving  on  copper, 

s  infancy,  and  brought 

live  engravers  in  that 

names  or  their  signa- 

)  Schoen,  a  painter  and 

486;  the  two  Israels 

I  at  Bockholt,  in  West- 

emberg,  the  roaster  of 

9  conspicuous  a  figure 

ining  of  the  sixteenth 

'te  is  no  other  that  so 
powder,  which,  by  in- 
'  fortifying,  attacking, 
I  change  in  the  whole 
mprises  several  disco- 
1  from  each  other.  1 
redient  in  gunpowder, 
mixture  of  nitre  with 
eaking,  forms  the  in* 


n>ioD  T.    A.  o.  1900 — 1453. 


IT7 


vention  of  gunpowder.  3.  The  application  of  powder  to  fire- 
works. 4h.  Its  employment  as  an  agent  or  propelling  power 
for  throwing  stones,  bullets,  or  other  heavy  and  combustible 
bodies.  6.  its  employment  in  springing  mines,  and  destroying 
fortifications. 

All  these  discoveries  belong  to  diflerent  epochs.  The  know- 
ledge of  saltpetre  or  nitre,  and  its  explosive  properties,  called 
detonation,  is  very  ancient.  Most  probably  it  was  brought  to 
us  from  the  East  (India  or  China,)  where  saltpetre  is  found  in  a 
natural  state  of  preparation.  It  is  not  less  probable  that  the 
nations  of  the  East  were  acquainted  with  the  composition  of 
gunpowder  before  tho  Europeans,  and  that  it  was  the  Arabs  who 
first  introrluced  the  use  of  it  into  Europe.  The  celebrated  Roger 
Bacon,  an  English  monk  or  friur  of  the  thirteenth  century,  was 
acquainled  with  the  composition  of  powder,  and  its  employment 
in  fire-works  and  public  festivities  ;  and  according  to  all  appear- 
ances, he  obtained  this  infonmuion  from  the  Arabic  authors, 
who  excelled  in  their  skill  of  tlie  chemicul  sciences.  The  em- 
ployment of  gunpowder  in  Enmpe  as  an  agent  for  throwing  balls 
and  stones,  is  ascertained  to  have  been  about  the  commencement 
of  the  fourteenth  century;  and  it  was  the  Arabs  who  first  avail- 
ed themselves  of  its  advantages  in  their  wars  against  the  Span- 
iards. From  Spain  the  use  of  gunpowder  and  artillery  passed 
to  France,  and  thence  it  gradiially  extended  over  the  other 
States  of  Europe.  As  to  the  application  of  powder  to  mines, 
and  the  destruction  of  fortified  works,  it  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  in  practice  before  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury.'^ The  introduction  of  bombs  and  mortars  seems  to  have 
been  of  an  earlier  date  (1467.)  The  invention  of  these  in 
Europe,  is  attributed  to  Sigismund  Pandolph  Malatesta,  Prince 
of  Rimini ;  but  in  France  they  were  not  in  use  till  about  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIII.  Muskets  and  matchlocks  began  to  be  in- 
troduced early  in  the  fifteenth  century.  They  were  without 
spring-locks  tdl  1517,  when  for  the  first  time  muskets  and  pis- 
tols with  spring-locks  were  manufactured  at  Nuremberg. 

Several  circumstances  tended  to  check  the  progress  of  fire- 
arms and  the  improvement  of  artillery.  Custom  made  most 
people  prefer  their  ancient  engines  of  war;  the  construction  of 
cannons  was  but  imperfect ;"  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder 
bad ;  and  there  w«u>  a  very  general  aversion  to  the  newly  in- 
vented arms,  as  contrary  to  humanity,  ^nd  calculated  to  extin- 
guish military  bravery.  Above  all,  the  knights,  whose  science 
was  rendered  completely  useless  by  the  introduction  of  fire- 
arms, set  themselves  with  all  their  might  to  oppose  this  invention. 

From  what  we  have  just  said  it  is  obvious,  that  the  common 


m 


CBAPTBR  Vi. 


tradition  which  ascribes  the  invention  of  gunpowder  to  a  certain 
monk,  named  Berthold  Schwartz,  merits  no  credit  whatever. 
This  tradition  is  founded  on  mere  hearsay ;  and  no  writers 
agree  as  to  the  name,  the  country,  or  the  circumstances  of  this 
pretended  inventor ;  nor  as  to  the  time  and  place  when  he  made 
this  extraordinary  discovery.  Lastly,  the  mariner's  compass, 
so  essential  to  the  art  of  navigation,  was  likewise  the  produc- 
tion of  the  barbarous  ages  to  which  we  now  refer.  The  ancients 
were  aware  of  the  property  of  the  magnet  to  attract  iron  ;  but 
its  direction  towards  the  pole,  and  the  manner  of  communica- 
ting its  magnetic  virtues  to  iron  and  steel,  were  unknown  even 
to  all  those  nations  of  antiquity  vvho  were  renowned  for  their 
navigation  and  commerce.  This  discovery  is  usually  attributed 
to  a  citizen  of  Amalfi,  named  Flavio  Gioia,  who  is  said  to  have 
lived  about  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century.  This  tra- 
dition, ancient  though  it  be,  cannot  be  admitted,  because  we 
have  incontestable  evidence  that,  before  this  period,  the  polarity 
of  the  loadstone  and  the  magnetic  needle  were  known  in  Europe ; 
and  that,  from  the  commencement  of  the  thirteenth  century,  the 
Proven9al  mariners  made  use  of  the  compass  in  navigation.  " 

It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  we  can  neither  point  out 
the  original  author  of  this  valuable  discovery,  nor  the  true  time 
when  it  was  made.  All  that  can  be  well  ascertained  is,  that 
the  mariner's  compass  wns  rectified  by  degrees  ;  and  that  the 
English  had  no  small  share  in  these  corrections.  It  is  to  this 
polar  virtue  or  quality  of  the  loadstone,  and  the  magnetic 
needle,  that  we  owe  the  astonishing  progress  of  commerce  and 
navigation  in  Europe,  from  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
These  were  already  very  considerable  at  the  time  of  which  we 
speak,  although  navigation  was  as  yet  confined  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean, the  Baltic,  and  the  shores  of  the  Indian  ocean. 

The  cities  of  Italy,  the  Hanseatic  towns,  and  those  of  the 
Low  Countries,  engrossed,  at  that  time,  the  principal  commerce 
of  Europe.  The  Venetians,  the  Genoese,  and  the  Florentines, 
were  masters  of  the  Levant.  The  Genoese  had  more  espe- 
cially the  command  of  the  Black  Sea,  while  the  Venetians  laid 
claim  exclusively  to  the  commerce  of  India  and  the  East,  which 
they  carried  on  through  the  ports  of  Egypt  and  Syria.  This 
rivalry  in  trade  embroiled  these  two  republics  in  frequent  dis- 
putes, and  involved  them  in  long  and  sanguinary  wars.  The 
resuh  turned  in  favour  of  the  Venetians,  who  found  means  to 
maintain  the  empire  of  the  Mediterranean  against  the  Genoese. 
The  manufactories  of  silk,  after  having  passed  from  Greece 
into  Sicily,  and  iront  Sicily  into  the  other  parts  of  Italy,  at 
lengdi  fixed  their  principal  residence  at  Venice.    This  city 


FBSIOO  V.     A.  D.  1300 — 1453. 


179 


Ifunpowder  tu  a  certain 

■  no  credit  whatever. 

irsay ;  and  no  writers 

circumstances  of  this 

place  when  he  made 

mariner's  compass, 

likewise  the  produc- 

)w  refer.  The  ancients 

et  to  attract  iron  ;  but 

inner  of  communica- 

were  unknown  even 

•e  renowned  for  their 

ry  is  usually  attributed 

a,  who  is  said  to  have 

th  century.     This  tra- 

admitted,  because  we 

his  period,  the  polarity 

I'ere  known  in  Europe ; 

thirteenth  century,  the 

mpass  in  navigation.  '•* 

can  neither  point  out 

very,  nor  the  true  time 

ill  ascertained  is,  that 

degrees ;  and  that  the 

rections.      It  is  to  this 

ne,  and   the  magnetic 

jress  of  commerce  and 

'  the  fifteenth  century. 

:  the  time  of  which  we 

mfined  to  the  Mediter- 

Indian  ocean. 

wns,  and  those  of  the 

the  principal  commerce 

ie,  and  the  Florentines, 

noese  had  more  espe- 

hile  the  Venetians  laid 

tia  and  the  East,  which 

fypt  and  Syria.     This 

iblics  in  frequent  dis- 

anguinary  wars.     The 

,  who  found  means  to 

m  against  the  Genoese. 

g  passed  from  Greece 

other  parts  of  Italy,  at 

at  Venice.    This  city 


came  at  length  to  furnish  the  greater  part  of  Europe  with  silk 
mercery,  and  the  productions  of  Arabia  and  India.  The  Italian 
merchants,  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  Lombards,  ex- 
tended  their  traffic  through  all  the  diiierent  states  of  Europe. 
Favoured  by  the  privileges  and  immunities  which  various 
sovereigns  had  granted  them,  they  soon  became  masters  of  the 
commerce  and  the  current  money  of  every  country  where  they 
established  themselves  ;  and,  in  all  probability,  they  were  the 
first  that  adopted  the  practice  of  Letters  or  Bills  of  Exchange, 
ofwhichwemay  discover  traces  towards  the  middle  of  the 
thirteenth  century. 

The  Hanseatic  League,  which  the  maritime  cities  on  the 
Baltic  had  formed  in  the  thirteenth  century,  for  the  protection 
of  their  commerce  against  pirates  and  brigands,  gained  very 
considerable  accessions  of  strength  in  the  following  century, 
and  even  became  a  very  formidable  maritime  power.  A  great 
number  of  the  commercial  cities  of  the  Empire,  from  the  Scheld 
and  the  isles  of  Zealand,  to  the  confines  of  Livonia,  entered 
successively  into  this  League  ;  and  tiiany  towns  in  the  interior, 
in  order  to  enjoy  their  protection,  solicited  the  favour  of  being 
admitted  under  its  flag.  The  first  public  act  of  a  general  con- 
federation among  these  cities,  was  drawn  up  at  the  assembly  of 
their  deputies,  held  O.  Cologne,  in  1364.  The  whole  of  the 
allied  towns  were  subdivided  into  quarters  or  circles  ;  the  most 
ancient  of  which  were  the  Venedian  quarter,  containing  the 
southern  and  eastern  coasts  of  the  Baltic ;  the  Westphalian, 
for  the  towns  on  the  western  side  ;  and  the  Saxon,  compre- 
hending the  inland  and  intermediate  towns.  A  fourth  circle  or 
quarter  was  afterwards  added,  that  of  the  cities  of  Prussia  and 
Livonia.  The  boundaries  of  these  different  circles  and  their 
capital  towns  varied  from  time  to  time.  The  general  assem- 
blies of  the  League  were  held  regularly  every  three  years,  in 
the  city  of  Lubec,  which  was  considered  as  the  capital  of  the 
whole  League  ;  while  each  of  the  three  or  four  circles  had  also 
their  particular  or  provincial  assemblies. 

The  most  flourishing  epoch  of  this  League  was  about  the 
end  of  the  fourteenth  and  the  early  part  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. At  that  time,  the  deputies  of  more  than  fourscore  cities 
appeared  at  its  assemblies  ;  and  even  some  towns  who  had  not 
the  privilege  of  sending  dej)uties  were,  nevertheless,  regarded 
as  allies  of  the  League.  Having  the  command  of  the  whole 
commerce  of  the  Butic,  their  cities  exercised  at  their  pleasure 
the  rights  of  peace  and  v.ar,  and  even  of  forming  alliances. 
They  equipped  numerous  and  powerful  fleets,  and  offered  bat« 
tie  to  the  sovereigns  of  the  North,  whenever  they  presumed  to 


,i> 


m 


m 


onmiiK  VI. 


iaterfore  with  their  monopoly,  or  to  restrict  the  privilegee  and 
exemptions  which  they  had  the  weakness  to  grant  them.  The 
productions  of  the  North,  such  as  hemp,  flax,  timber,  potash, 
tar,  com,  hides,  furs,  and  copjper,  with  the  produce  of  the 
large  and  small  fisheries  on  the  coast  of  Schonen,  Norway, 
Lapland,  and  Iceland,''  formed  the  staple  of  the  Hanseatic 
commerce.  They  exchanged  these  commodities,  in  the  west- 
ern parts  of  Europe,  for  wines,  fruits,  drugs,  and  all  sorts  of 
cloths,  which  they  carried  back  to  the  North  in  return.  Their 
principal  factories  and  warehouses,  were  at  Bruges  for  Flan- 
ders,  at  London  for  England,  at  Novogorod  for  Russia,  and  at 
Bergen  for  Norway.  The  merchandise  of  Italy  and  the  East 
was  imported  into  Flanders,  in  Genoese  or  Venetian  bottoms, 
which,  at  that  time,  carried  on  most  of  the  commerce  of  the 
Levant  and  the  Mediterranean. 

Extensive  as  the  trade  of  the  Hanseatic  cities  was,  it  proved 
neither  solid  nor  durable.  As  they  were  themselves  deficient 
in  the  articles  of  rr.w  materials  and  large  manufactories,  and 
entirely  dependent  on  foreign  traffic,  the  industry  of  other  na- 
tions, especially  of  those  skilled  in  the  arts,  had  a  ruinous  effect 
on  their  commerce ;  and,  in  course  of  time,  turned  the  current 
of  merchandise  into  other  channels.  Besides,  the  want  of 
union  among  these  cities,  their  factions  and  intestine  divisions, 
and  their  distance  from  each  other,  prevented  them  from  ever 
forming  a  territorial  or  colonial  power,  or  obtaining  possession 
of  the  Sound,  which  alone  was  able  to  secure  them  the  exclu- 
sive commerce  of  the  Bailie.  The  sovereigns  of  Europe,  per- 
ceivhig  at  length  more  clearly  their  true  interests,  and  sensible 
of  the  mistake  they  had  committed  in  surrendering  the  whole 
commerce  of  their  kingdom  to  the  Hanseatic  merchants,  used 
every  means  to  limit  and  abridge  their  pri^leges  more  and 
more.  This,  in  consequence,  involved  the  confederate  towns  in 
several  destructive  wars  with  the  Kings  of  the  North,  which 
exhausted  their  finances,  and  induced  one  city  after  another  to 
abandon  the  League.  The  English  and  the  Dutch,  encouraged 
by  the  Danish  Kings,  took  advantage  of  this  favourable  oppor- 
tunity to  send  their  vessels  to  the  Baltic ;  and  by  degrees  they 
appropriated  to  themselves  the  greater  part  of  the  trade  that 
had  been  engrossed  by  the  Hanseatic  Uomn.  But  what  is  of 
more  importance  to  remark,  is,  that  this  League,  as  well  as  that 
of  Lombardy,  having  been  formed  in  consequence  of  the  state 
of  anarchy  into  which  the  Empire  had  &Uen  in  the  middle 
ages,  the  natural  result  was,  that  it  should  lose  its  credit  and  its 
influence  in  projportion  as  the  feudal  anarchy  declined,  and  when 
the  administration  of  the  Empire  had  assumed  a  new  form,  and 


"%H 


nj 


:t  the  privilegw  and 
to  grant  them.    The 
flax,  timber,  potash, 
the  produce  of   the 
)f  Schonen,  Norway, 
lie  of  the  Hanseatic 
nodities,  in  the  west- 
rugs,  and  all  sorts  of 
rth  in  return.     Their 
at  Bruges  for  Flan- 
od  for  Russia,  and  at 
of  Italy  and  the  East 
or  Venetian  bottoms, 
the  commerce  of  the 

ic  cities  was,  it  proved 
:e  themselves  deficient 
jre  manufactories,  and 

industry  of  other  na- 
ts,  had  a  ruinous  effect 
ne,  turned  the  current 
Besides,  the  want  of 
ind  intestine  divisions, 
ented  them  from  ever 
r  obtaining  possession 
|ecure  them  the  exclu- 
jreigns  of  Europe,  per- 

interests,  and  sensible 
urrendering  the  whole 
seatic  merchants,  used 
ir  pri^leges  more  and 
he  confederate  towns  in 
j8  of  the  North,  which 
le  city  after  another  to 
i  the  Dutch,  encouraged 
'  this  favourable  oppor- 
! ;  and  by  degrees  they 
r  part  of  the  trade  that 
rnion.  But  what  is  of 
League,  as  well  as  that 
»nsequeace  of  the  state 
id  mien  in  the  middle 
Id  lose  its  credit  and  its 
rchy  declined,  and  when 
isumed  a  new  form,  and 


PBRIOS  ▼.    A.  D.  1300—1469. 

the  landed  nobility,  emboldened  by  the  iccesaiona  which  tlw 
seventeenth  century  had  made  to  their  power,  had  found  means 
to  compel  their  dependent  cities  to  return  t*^  iheir  allegiano0| 
after  having  made  repeated  efforts  to  throw  off  their  authority, 
encouraged  as  they  were  by  the  protection  v  hich  the  League 
held  out  to  them. 

In  this  manner  did  the  famous  Hanseatic  Jjeague,  so  formi- 
dable at  the  time  of  which  we  now  speak,  decline  by  degrees 
during  the  course  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  in  the  early 
part  of  the  eighteenth ;  and  during  the  Thirty  Years  War  it  be* 
came  entirely  extinct.  The  cities  of  Lubec,  Hamburg  and  Bre« 
men,  abandoned  by  all  their  confederates,  entered  into  a  new 
union  for  the  interests  of  their  commerce,  and  preserved  the  an> 
cient  custom  of  treating  in  common  with  foreign  powers,  under 
the  name  of  the  Hanse  Towns. 

The  cities  of  Italy  and  the  North  were  not  the  only  ones  that 
made  commerce  their  pursuit  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries.  Ghent,  Bruges,  Antwerp,  and  other  towns  in  the 
Netherlands,  contributed  greatly  to  the  prosperity  of  trade  by 
their  manufactures  of  cloth,  cotton,  camlets,  and  tapestry;  arti* 
cles  with  which  they  supplied  the  greater  part  of  Europe.  The 
English  exchanged  their  raw  wool  with  the  Belgians,  for  the 
finished  manufactures  of  their  looms,  while  the  Italians  furnish- 
ed  them  with  the  productions  of  .the  Levant,  and  the  silk  stufft 
of  India.  Nothing  is  more  surprising  than  the  immense  popu- 
lation of  these  cities,  whose  wealth  and  affluence  raised  their 
rulers  to  the  rank  of  the  most  powerful  princes  in  Europe.  The 
city  of  Bruges  was,  ns  it  were,  the  centre  and  principal  reposi- 
tory for  the  merchandise  of  the  North  and  the  South.  Such  an 
entrepot  was  necessary,  at  a  time  when  navigation  was  yet  in 
its  infancy.  For  this  purpose,  Flanders  and  Brabant  were  ex- 
tremely proper,  as  these  provinces  had  an  easy  communication 
with  all  the  principal  nations  of  the  Continent ;  and  as  the  great 
number  of  their  manufactories,  together  with  the  abimdance  of 
fish  which  their  rivers  afforded,  naturally  attracted  a  vast  con- 
course of  foreign  traders.  This  fjuperiority,  as  the  Cv«mmercial 
capital  of  the  Low  Countries,  Bruges  retained  till  nearly  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  it  lost  this  preponderance, 
which  was  then  transferred  to  the  city  of  Antwerp. 

The  intestine  diasehsions  with  which  the  cities  of  Flanden 
and  Brabant  were  agitated,  the  restraints  which  were  incessant- 
ly imposed  en  their  commerce,  and  the  frequent  wars  which 
desolated  the  Low  Countries,  induced,  from  time  to  time,  a  great 
many  Flemish  operatives  about  the  fourteenth  century,  and  the 
nign  of  Edward  III.,  to  take  refuge  in  England,  ^ere  they 

VOL.   I.  10 


.3 


eHArriB  n. 


Mtabluhed  their  cloth  manufactories  under  the  immediate  pro 
taction  of  the  crown.  One  circumstance  which  more  particn* 
larly  contributed  to  the  prosperity  of  the  Dutch  commerce,  was 
the  new  method  of  saltmg  and  barrelling  herring,  which  was 
discovered  about  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century  (or  1400)  by 
a  man' named  William  BeukeUzoon,  a  native  of  Biervliet,  near 
Stuys.  The  new  passage  of  the  Texel,  which  the  sea  opened 
up  about  the  same  time,  proved  a  most  favourable  accident  for 
the  city  of  Amsterdam,  which  immediately  monopolized  the 

Erincipal  commerce  of  the  fisheries,  and  began  to  be  frequented 
y  the  Hanseatic  traders. 

We  now  return  to  the  history  of  Qermany.  The  Imperial 
throne,  always  elective,  was  conferred,  in  1308,  on  the  princes 
of  the  House  of  Luxembourg,  who  occupied  it  till  1438,  when 
the  House  of  Hapsburg  obtained  the  Imperial  dignity.  It  was 
under  the  reign  of  these  two  dynasties  that  the  government  of 
the  Empire,  which  till  then  had  been  vacillating  and  uncertain, 
began  to  assume  a  constitutional  form,  and  a  new  and  settled 
code  of  laws.  That  which  was  published  at  the  Diet  of  Frank- 
fort in  1338,  secured  the  independence  of  the  Empire  against 
the  Popes.  It  was  preceded  by  a  League,  ratified  at  Rensd  by 
the  '^.lectors,  and  known  by  the  name  of  the  General  Union  of 
the  Electors.  The  Golden  Bull,  drawn  up  by  the  Emperor 
Charles  IV.  (1356,)  in  the  Diets  of  Nuremberg  and  Metz,  fixed 
the  order  and  the  form  of  electing  the  Emperors,  and  the  cere- 
monial of  their  coronation.  It  ordained  that  this  election  should 
be  determined  by  a  majority  of  the  suffrages  of  the  seven  Elec- 
tors— and  that  the  vote  of  ihe  Elector,  who  might  happen  to  be 
chosen,  should  also  be  included.  Moreover,  to  prevent  those 
electoral  divisions,  which  had  more  than  once  excited  factions 
and  civil  wars  in  the  Empire,  this  law  fixed  irrevocably  the 
right  of  suffrage  in  the  Principalities,  then  entitled  Electorates. 
It  forbade  any  division  of  these  principalities,  and  for  this  end 
it  introduced  the  principal  of  birthright,  and  the  order  of  suc- 
cession, called  agnate,  or  direct  male  line  from  the  same  father. 
Finally,  the  Golden  Bull  determined  more  particularly  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  the  electors,  and  confirmed  to  the  electors  of 
the  Palatinate  and  Saxony  the  viceroyalty  or  government  of  the 
Empire  during  any  interregnum. 

The  efforts  which  the  Council  of  Basle  made  for  the  reforma- 
tion of  the  church  excited  the  attention  of  the  Etates  of  the  em- 
pire. In  a  diet  held  at  Mayence  (1439,)  they  adopted  several 
mereea  of  that  council,  by  a  solemn  act  drawn  up  in  presence 
of  the  ambassadors  of  the  council,  and  of  the  kings  of  France, 
Castille,  Amgon,  and  Portugal.    Among  these  adopted  decroea. 


the  immediate  pro 

which  mure  particn* 

)utch  commerce,  was 

herring,  which  was 
century  (or  1400)  by 
ive  of  Biervliet,  near 
which  the  sea  opened 
vourable  accident  for 
ely  monopolized  the 
egan  to  be  frequented 

many.     The  Imperial 
I  1308,  on  the  princes 
>ied  it  till  1438,  when 
lerial  dignity.     It  was 
lat  the  government  of 
illating  and  uncertain, 
ind  a  new  and  settled 
1  at  the  Diet  of  Frank- 
of  the  Empire  against 
le,  ratified  at  Rensd  by 
the  General  Union  of 
n  up  by  the  Emperor 
mberg  and  Metz,  fixed 
mperors,  and  the  cere- 
hat  this  election  should 
ages  of  the  seven  Elec- 
rho  might  happen  to  be 
eover,  to  prevent  those 
in  once  excited  factions 
IV  fixed  irrevocably  the 
en  entitled  Electorates, 
alities,  and  for  this  end 
and  the  order  of  suc- 
e  from  the  same  father. 
«  particularly  the  rights 
rmed  to  the  electors  of 
ty  or  government  of  the 

le  made  for  the  reforma- 
of  the  Etates  of  the  em- 
^)  they  adopted  several 
t  drawn  up  in  presence 
of  the  kings  of  France, 
g  these  adopted  decrees, 


ntioD  T.    A.  D.  130(^1403. 

which  were  not  afterwards  altered,  we  observe  those  which 
establish  the  superiority  of  eoancils  above  the  Popes,  which 
prohibited  those  appeals  called  ammo  medio,  or  inmeiiatet  md 
enjoined  the  Pope  to  settle  all  appeals  referred  to  his  court,  by 
commissioners  appointed  by  him  upon  the  spot.  Two  concor- 
dats, concluded  at  Rome  and  Vienna  (1447-48,)  between  the 
Papal  court  and  the  German  nation,  confirmed  these  stipulations. 
The  latter  of  these  concordats,  however,  restored  to  the  Pope 
deveral  of  the  reserves,  of  which  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  had 
deprived  him.  He  was  also  allowed  to  retain  the  right  of  con- 
firming the  prelates,  and  enjoying  the  annats  and  the  alternate 
months. 

The  ties  which  united  the  numerous  states  of  the  Germui 
empire  having  been  relaxed  by  the  introduction  of  hereditary 
feudalism,  and  the  downfall  of  Imperial  authority,  the  conse- 

Sience  was,  that  those  states,  which  Avere  more  remote  from 
e  seat  of  authority,  by  degrees  asserted  their  independence,  or 
were  reduced  to  suhjection  by  their  more  powerful  neighbours. 
It  was  in  this  manner  that  several  provinces  of  the  ancient 
kingdom  of  Burgundy,  or  Aries,  passed  in  succession  to  the 
crown  of  France.  Philip  the  Fair,  taking  advantage  of  the  dis- 
putes which  had  arisen  between  the  Archbishop  and  the  citizens 
of  Lyons,  obliged  the  Archbishop,  Peter  de  Savoy,  to  surrender 
to  him  by  treaty  (1312)  the  sovereignty  of  the  city  and  its  de- 
pendencies. The  same  kingdom  acquired  the  province  of  Dan- 
phiny,  in  virtue  of  the  grant  which  the  last  Dauphin,  Humbert 
II.,  made  (1349)  of  his  estates  to  Charles,  grandson  of  Philip  de 
Valois,  and  first  Dauphin  of  France.  Provence  was  likewise 
added  (1481)  to  the  dominions  of  that  crown,  by  the  testament 
of  Charles,  last  Count  of  Provence,  of  the  House  of  Anjou. 
As  to  the  city  of  Avignon,  it  was  sold  (1348)  by  Joan  I.,  Queen 
of  Naples,  and  Countess  of  Provence,  to  Pope  Clement  VI., 
who  at  the  same  time  obtained  letters-patent  from  the  Emperor 
Charles  IV.,  renouncing  the  claims  of  the  Empire  to  the  sove- 
reignty of  that  city,  as  well  as  to  all  lands  belongfing  to  the  Church. 
A  most  important  revolution  happened  about  this  time  in 
Switzerland.  That  country,  formerly  dependent  upon  the  king- 
dom of  Burgundy,  had  become  an  immediate  province  of  the 
Empire  (1218,)  on  the  extinction  of  the  Dukes  of  Zahringen, 
who  had  governed  it  under  the  title  of  Regents.  About  the 
beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  Switzerland  was  divided 
into  a  number  of  petty  states,  both  secular  and  ecclesiastical. 
Among  these  we  nnd  the  Bishop  of  Basle,  the  Abb^  of  St.  Gall, 
the  Counts  of  Hapsburg,  Toggenburg,  Savoy,  Gruyeres,  Neuf- 
ehatel,  Werdenberg,  Buchecu,  fcc    The  towns  of  Zurich,  So- 


1 


HBAVriM  YU 


Imuv,  BmI*,  Berne,  and  others,  had  the  nmfc  of  free  end  unperml 
eMee.  A  part  of  tlie  inhabitanta  of  Uri,  Schweili,  and  Under- 
walden,  who  held  unmediatelv  of  the  Empire,  were  governed 
bjr  their  own  magistrates,  unaer  the  title  of  Cantons.  They 
were  placed  by  the  Emperor  under  the  jurisdiction  of  governors, 
iriio  exercised,  in  his  name  and  that  of  the  Empire,  the  power 
of  the  sword  in  all  these  cantons.  Such  was  tne  constitution 
vi  Switzerland,  when  the  Emperor  Albert  I.  of  Austria,  son  of 
Rodolph  of  Hapsburg,  conceived  the  project  of  extending  his 
dominion  in  that  country,  where  he  already  had  considerable 

Essessions,  in  his  capacity  of  Count  of  Hapsbui^,  Kyburg, 
iden,  and  Lentzburg.  Beinp:  desirous  of  forming  Switzerland 
into  a  principality,  in  favour  of  one  of  his  sons,  he  made,  in 
course  of  time,  several  new  acquisitions  of  territory,  with  the 
view  of  enlarging  his  estates.  The  Abbeys  of  Murbach,  Ein- 
aiedel,  Interlaken,  and  Discntis,  and  the  Canons  of  Lucerne,  sold 
him  their  rights  and  possessions  in  QIaris,  Lucerne,  Si-hweitz, 
and  Underwalden.  He  next  directed  his  policy  against  the 
three  immediate  cantons  of  Uri,  Schweitz,  and  Underwalden ; 
and  endeavoured  to  make  them  acknowledge  the  superiority  oi 
Austria,  Vy  tolerating  the  oppressions  which  the  governors  exer- 
cised, whom  he  had  appointed  to  rule  them  in  the  name  of  the 
Empire.  It  was  under  these  circumstances  that  three  intrepid  in- 
dividual, Werner  de  Stauflach,a  native  of  the  canton  of  Sch  weiiz, 
Walter  Fiirst,  of  Uri,  and  Arnold  de  Melchlhal  of  Underwalden, 
took  the  resolution  of  delivering  their  country  from  the  tyranny  of 
a  foreign  yoke."  The  conspiracy  which  they  Turmed  for  this  pur- 
pose, broke  out  on  the  1st  of  January  1308.  The  governors, 
surprised  in  their  castles  by  the  conspirators,  were  banished  the 
country,  and  their  castles  razed  to  the  ground.  The  deputies 
of  the  three  cantons  assembled,  and  entered  into  a  league  of  ten 
years  for  the  maintenance  of  their  liberties  and  their  privileges ; 
reserving  however  to  the  Empire  its  proper  rights,  as  also  those 
claimed  by  the  superiors,  whether  lay  or  ecclesiastical.  Thus 
a  conspiracy,  which  was  originally  turned  only  against  Austria, 
terminated  in  withdrawing  Switzerland  from  the  sovereignty  of 
the  German  empire.  The  victory  which  the  confederates  gained 
over  the  Austrians  at  Morgarten,  on  the  borders  of  the  canton  of 
Schweitz,  encouraged  them  to  renew  their  league  at  Brunnen 
(1315;)  and  to  redder  it  perpe'.ual.  As  it  was  confirmed  by  oath,  the 
confederates,  from  this  circumstance,  got  the  name  of  Eidgenouen, 
iriueh  meana,  bound  hy  oath.  This  league  became  henceforth 
the  basis  of  the  fedend  system  of  the  Swiss,  who  «  ore  not  long 
in  strengthening  their  cause  bv  the  accesaion  of  other  cantons. 
The  city  of  Lucerne,  havin^^  shaken  off  the  yoke  of  Hapsbuif, 


1  -     «_ 


I  of  Are*  and  imperwl 

chweilit  and  U  nder- 

pire,  wera  governed 

of  Cantona.     They 

diction  of  governora, 

•  Empire,  the  power 

waa  the  constitution 

I.  of  Austria,  son  of 

|ect  of  extending  his 

idy  had  considerable 

Hapsburff,  Kyburg, 

forming  Switzerland 

is  sons,  he  made,  in 

of  territory,  with  the 

■ys  of  Murbach,  Ein- 

mons  of  Lucerne,  sold 

,  Lucerne,  Sihweitz, 

lis  policy  against  the 

[z,  and  tJnderwalden ; 

idge  the  superiority  ol 

ch  the  governors  exer- 

sm  in  the  name  of  the 

a  that  three  intrepid  in- 

the  canton  of  Schweitz, 

hlhal  of  Underwalden, 

itry  from  the  tyranny  of 

hey  rurmed  for  thie  pur- 

1308.     The  governors, 

itors,  were  banished  the 

l^round.     The  deputies 

red  into  a  league  of  ten 

es  and  their  privileges ; 

per  rights,  as  also  those 

ir  ecclesiastical.     Thus 

id  only  against  Austria, 

from  the  sovereignty  of 

the  confederates  gained 

borders  of  the  canton  of 

leir  league  at  Brunnen 

as  confirmed  by  oath,  the 

;he  name  of  Eidgenouen, 

gue  became  henceforth 

riss,  who  «  jre  not  long 

eaaion  <^  other  cantons. 

'the  yoke  of  Hapabuif, 


ratioD  ▼.    A.  B.  1300—1463.  W$ 

j«iatd  the  Lotfue  of  Brunnon  in  1339,  Zurich  in  1301,  Okurli 
ud  Zug  1303,  and  Berne  in  13M.  These  formed  the  etght 
ancient  cantons. 

The  situation  of  the  confederates,  however,  could  not  fltil  to 
be  Tery  embimraasing,  ao  lon^  as  the  Austrians  retained  the  TMt 
posaessiona  which  they  had  in  the  very  centre  of  Switierland. 
The  proscription  which  the  Emperor  Sigismund  and  the  Coun- 
cil of  Constance,  iaaued  againat  Frederic,  Duke  of  Austria  ( 1410,) 
as  an  adherent  and  protector  of  John  XXIIL,  at  len^h  fur- 
nished the  Swiss  witn  a  favourable  occasion  for  deprivmg  the 
house  of  Austria  of  their  possessions.  The  Bernese  were  the 
first  to  set  the  example ;  they  took  from  the  Austrian  Dukea, 
the  towns  of  Zofflngen,  Aran,  and  Bruck,  with  the  counties  of 
Hapsburg  and  Lentsburg,  and  the  ^eater  part  of  Aargua.  Ky- 
burg fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Zurichers ;  the  Lucernese  made 
themselves  masters  of  Surs^e  ;  and  the  free  bailiwicks,  with  the 
county  of  Baden,  the  towns  of  Mellingen  and  Bremgarten,  were 
subdued  by  the  combined  forces  of  the  ancient  cantons,  who, 
since  then,  have  possessed  them  in  common. 

In  the  kingdom  of  Lorraine  a  new  power  rose  about  this  time 
(1363,)  that  of  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy.  Philip  the  Hardy, 
younger  son  of  John  the  Good,  King  of  France,  having  been 
created  Duke  of  Burgundy  by  the  K'laa  his  father,  married 
Margaret,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Louis  IIL,  last  Count  of 
Flanders.  By  this  marriage  'he  obtained  Flanders,  Artoia, 
Frenche-Comt^,  Nevers,  Bethel,  Malines,  and  Antwerp,  and 
transmitted  these  estates  to  his  son  John  the  Fearless,  and  his 
grandson  Philip  the  Good.  This  latter  prince  increased  them 
still  more  by  several  new  acquisitions.  The  Count  of  Namar 
sold  him  his  whole  patrimony,  (1428.)  He  inherited  from  his 
cousin  Philip  of  Burffundy,  the  dutchies  of  Brabant  and  Lim- 
bourg,  (1430.)  Anotner  cousin,  the  famous  Jaqueline  de  Ba« 
varia,  made  over  to  him  by  treaty  (1433)  the  counties  of  Hainault, 
Holland,  Zealand,  and  Friesland.  Finally,  he  acquired  also  the 
dutchy  of  Luxembourg  and  the  county  of  Chiny,  by  a  compact 
which  he  made  with  the  Princess  Elizabeth  (1443,)  niece  of  the 
Emperor  Sigismund.  These  different  accessions  were  so  much 
the  more  important,  as  the  Low  Countries,  especially  Flandera 
and  Brabant,  were  at  that  time  the  seat  of  the  most  flourishing 
manufactories,  and  the  principal  mart  of  European  commerce. 
Hence  it  happened,  that  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy  began  to  com- 
pete with  the  first  powers  in  Europe,  and  even  to  rival  the  Kings 
of  France. 

Among  the  principal  reigning  families  of  the  Empire,  several 
revolutions  took  place.    The  ai.cient  Slavonic  dynasty  of  the 

16* 


am  CB'Tuvi. 

Ookta  and  Kings  nf  Bohcmi«  became  extinct  with  WeRcenlaM 
v.,  who  wot  UMaaimted  \u  1906.  The  Emperor  Henry  VII., 
of  the  hou«e  of  Luxembourg,  aeiied  thia  opportunity  or  trana* 
ferring  to  his  own  family  the  kinsdom  of  Bohemia,  in  whrch  be 
inreated  his  aon  John  (1309,)  wno  hud  married  the  Princess 
Blixaboih,  sister  to  the  laat  King  of  Bohemia.  John,  having 
made  considernble  acquisitions  in  Bohemia,  was  induced  to  cede 
by  treaty  with  Poland,  the  sovereignly  of  that  province.  The 
Ediperor  Charles  IV.,  son  of  John,  incorporated  Silesia,  as  also 
Luaaiia,  with  the  kinj^iiom  of  Bohemia,  by  the  Pragmniics 
which  he-  publiahet!  in  1356  and  1370.  The  war  with  the  Hua- 
aitea  broke  out  on  lht>  death  of  the  Emperor  Wencealaun,  King 
of  Bohemia  (1418;)  kcau*':  the  followers  of  John  Huss,  and 
Jerome  of  Prague,  hud  refused  to  acknowledge,  an  successor  of 
I  it,  that  prince,  the  Emperor  Sigismund,  his  brother  and  heir,  whom 

they  blarnfd  for  the  martyrdom  of  their  leaders.  This  war, 
one  of  the  most  banguinary  which  the  spirit  of  intolerance  aud 
fanat'u-ism  ever  excited,  continued  for  a  lon][^  series  ui  yeirs. 
John  ite  Trocxnova,  surnamed  Ziska,  general-in-chitif  of  the 
Hussites,  defeated  several  times  those  nuiiitrous  armies  of  cru- 
saders, which  were  BenX  against  iiim  into  Bohemia ;  and  it  was 
not  till  long  after  the  death  of  tiiat  extruordinarv  man,  that  Si- 
gismund succee'leii  in  alluyinf;  the  tempest,  and  re-establishing 
hia  own  authority  in  that  kingdom. 

The  house  of  wiitelsbach,  wiiirh  possessed  at  the  samfi  time 
the  Palatinate  and  Bavaria,  was  divided  into  two  principal 
branches,  viz.  that  of  the  Electors  Palatine,  and  the  D  tkes  of 
Bavaria.  By  the  treaty  of  division,  which  was  entered  inlo  at 
Favin  (1329,)  they  agreed  on  a  reciprocal  succession  of  the  two 
bratkches,  in  cn^e  the  one  or  the  ulher  should  hajppcii  to  fail  of 
heirs-male.  The  direct  line  of  the  Electors  of  Saxony  of  the 
Ascanian  House  happening  to  become  extinct,  the  Emperor 
Sigismund,  without  paying  any  regard  to  the  claims  ut  the 
younger  branches  of  Saxony,  conferred  that  Electorate  (1423,) 
•a  a  vacant  fief  of  the  Empire,  on  Frederic  the  Warlike,  Mar- 
gravs  of  Misnia,  who  had  rendered  him  signal  assistance  in  the 
war  against  the  Hussites.  This  Prince  had  two  grandsons, 
Ernest  and  Albert,  from  whom  are  descended  the  two  principal 
branches,  which  still  divide  the  House  of  Saxony. 

The  Ascanian  dynasty  did  not  lose  merely  the  Electorate  of 
Saxony,  as  we  have  just  stated  ;  it  was  also  deprived,  in  the 
preceding  century,  of  the  Electorate  of  Brandcnburjr.  Albert, 
surnamed  the  Bear,  a  scion  of  this  house,  had  transmitted  this 
latter  Electorate,  of  which  he  was  the  founder,  to  his  descend* 
ants  in  direct  line,  the  male  heira  of  which  failed  about  the  be* 


'Z 


net  with  Wer.cMUm 
?inp«ror  Henry  VII., 
opportunity  of  inau- 
ioneroia,  in  which  h« 
narried  the  Princes* 
emit.    John,  huviiiji; 
,  wai  induced  to  cede 
that  province.     The 
orated  Silesia,  as  also 
,  by  the  Pragmatics 
rhe  war  with  the  Hus- 
ror  WenceslauH,  Kins 
rs  of  John  Huss,  and 
riedge,  an  successor  of 
rolher  and  heir,  whom 
'  leaders.     This  war, 
irit  of  intolerance  aud 
long  series  of  yeirs. 
lenernl-in-chief  of  the 
iiKTOus  armies  of  cru  ■ 
Bohemia ;  and  it  war. 
irdinary  man,  that  Si- 
!8t,  and  re-establishing 

Bssed  at  the  samfi  time 
ed  into  two  principal 
ine,  and  the  D  iVes  of 
ch  was  entered  inlo  at 
,1  succession  of  the  two 
liould  happen  to  fail  of 
ctors  of  Saxony  of  the 

extinct,  the  Emperor 
I  to  the  claims,  oi'  the 
that  Electorate  (1423,) 
eric  the  Warlike,  Mar- 
signal  assistance  in  the 
ce  had  two  grandsons, 
ended  the  two  principal 
)f  Saxony. 

nerely  the  Electorate  of 
as  also  deprived,  in  the 

Brandenburg.  Albert, 
ise,  had  transmitted  this 
founder,  to  his  descend- 
iiith  failed  about  the  be- 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
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Canadian  Institute  for  Historicai  Microreproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  de  microreproductions  historiques 


'  '^^l^iS^SST--' 


ntios  V.    A.  B.  1800—1453. 


isr 


ginning  of  the  fourteenth  centurv.  The  Empem  Louis  of 
Bavaria  then  hestowed  it  on  his  eldest  son  Louis  (1324.)  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  collateral  branches  of  Saxony  and  Anhalt.  The 
Bavarian  Princes,  however,  did  not  long  preserve  this  Electo- 
rate; they  surrendered  it  (1373)  to  the  fimperor  Charles  IV.. 
whose  son  Sigisround  ceded  it  to  Frederic.  Burgrave  of  Nu- 
remberg,  of  the  House  of  HohenzoUern,  who  had  advanced  him 
considerable  sums  to  defray  his  expeditions  into  Hungary.  Ihis 
Prince  was  solemnly  invested  witli  the  electoral  dignity  by  the 
Emperor,  at  the  Council  of  Constance  (1417.)  and  became  the 
ancestor  of  aU  the  Electors  and  Margraves  of  Brandenburg,  as 
well  as  of  the  Kings  of  Prussia. 

The  numerous  repubUcs  which  had  sprung  up  m  Italy,  in  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  were  torn  to  pieces  by  contend- 
ine  factions,  and  a  prey  to  mutual  and  incessant  hostilities. 
What  contributed  to  augment  the  trouble  and  confusion  in  that 
unhappy  country  was,  that,  during  a  long  series  of  years,  no 
Emperor  had  repaired  thither  in  person,  or  made  the  smallest 
attempt  to  restore  the  Imperial  authority  in  those  states.     1  he 
feeble  efforts  of  Henry  VII.,  Louis  of  Bavaria,  and  Charles  lY., 
only  served  to  prove,  that  in  Italy  the  royal  prerogative  was 
without  vigour  or  effect.     Anarchy  every  where  prevailed ;  and 
that  spirit  of  liberty  and  republicanism  which  had  once  anima- 
ted the  Italians  gradually  disappeared.     Disgusted  at  length 
with  privileges  which  had  become  so  fatal  to  them,  some  of  these 
republics  adopted  the  plan  of  choosing  new  masters ;  while 
others  were  subjected,  against  their  inclinations,  by  the  more 
powerful  of  the  nobles.    The  Marquises  of  Este  seized  Modena 
and  Reggio  (1336.)  and  obtained  the  ducal  dignity  (1462)  from 
the  Emperor  Frederic  III.     Mantua  fell  to  the  house  of  Gonza- 
ea,  who  possessed  that  sovereignty  first  under  the  title  of  Mar- 
Iraves,  and  afterwards  under  that  of  Dukes,  which  was  confer- 
red on  them  by  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  in  1530     But  the 
greater  part  of  these  luilian  republics  fell  to  the  share  of  the 
Visconti  of  Milan.     The  person  who  founded  the  prosperity  of 
their  house  was  Matthew  Visconti,  nephew  of  Otho  Visconti, 
Archbishop  of  Milan.     Invested  with  the  titles  of  Captain  and 
Imperial  Viceroy  in  Lombardy,  he  continued  to  make  himsell 
acknowledged  as  sovereign  of  Milan  (1315,)  and  conquered  m 
succession  all  the  principal  towns  and  republics  of  Lombardy. 
His  successors  followed  his  example :  they  enlarged  their  terri- 
tories by  several  new  conquests,  till  at  length  John  Galeas,  great 
erandson  of  Matthew  Visconti,  obtained,  from  the  Emperor  Wen- 
ceslaus  (1395,)  for  a  sum  of  a  hundred  thousand  florins  of  gold 
which  he  paid  him,  the  title  of  Duke  of  Milan  for  himself  and 


18B 


»\, 


•BAmtKVI. 


•U  his  dMcendwta.    The  Visconii  fiunily  mgned  at  Biitan  tOl 
1447,  when  they  were  replaced  by  that  of  Sforia.  , 

the  fourtwnth  century,  the  in«wt  conspicuou.  "ert  thowB  of 
Florence,  Genoa  and  Venice.  The  city  of  Florence,  hke  tJl 
the  others  in  Tuscany,  formed  itself  into  a  "P-"*^  •^«»  *• 
end  of  the  twelfth  century.  lu  government  «"«»?'*« "i3"»* 
changes,  after  the  introduction  of  a  democracy  about  the  middle 
of  thi  thirteenth  century.  The  various  factions  which  had  ag- 
tated  the  republic,  induced  the  Florentines  to  elect  •  W»;«»« 
(1292.)  calfed  GanfaUmiere  de  Justice,  or  Captain  of  Justice , 
nvTsted  with  power  to  assemble  the  inhabitants  under  h". Btand- 
ard,  whenever  the  means  for  conciliation  were  insufficient  to 
i^ess  faction  and  restore  peace.  These  internal  agita^mns, 
however,  did  not  prevent  the  Florentines  from  enriching  them- 
selves  by  means  of  their  commerce  and  manufactures,     iney 

succeed^,  in  course  of  time,  in  «"*'ir,V"»  »If  oTp  S  Chich 
the  free  cities  of  Tuscany,  and  especially  that  of£»s»' ^J'^J 
they  conquered  in  1406.  The  republic  of  Lucca  ^J  »''««»  y 
one  thantiaintained  its  independence.  ,n  spite  of  »  t^«  ««J;^ 
which  the  Florentines  made  to  subdue  it.  The  repubhcan  form 
of  government  continued  in  Florence  till  the  y«"  If  0'J>»«" 
the  family  of  the  Medici  i^surped  the  sovereignty,  under  the 

'r::^:l^:lr^^^'^'^  ^he  Genoese  to  quarrel  with 

liL^srilxasSei^^'ai^ 

Svant  and  the  Mediterranean.     This  gave  rise  to  a  long  and 
dfslstrous  series  of  wars,  the  last  and  most  memorab  e  of  which 
was  that  of  Chioggia  (137&-82.)     The  Genoese^fler  a  signd 
^tory  which  they  obtained  over  the  Venetians,  hjpfoie  Pola  in 
the  Adriatic  Gulf,'penetrated  to  ^he  very  midst  of  the  ^^^^^ 
of  Venice,  and  attacked  the  port  of  Chioggia.     Peter  Dona  made 
himseK  master  of  this  port ;  he  would  have  even  surprised  Ve- 
SS  tad"  he  taken  ad'van  age  of  the  Brst  consternaUon  of  the 
Venetians,  who  were  already  deliberating  T'f^J^'  ^JfX      Ti^e 
abandon  their  city  and  take  refuge  in  the  '^^^  «f  f  "»^'*;,,„\^^^^ 
tardiness  of  the  Genoese  admiral  gave  ^^em  time  to  recover 
hemilves      Impelled  by  a  noble  despair,  they  made  extraordi- 
ra,;^?ffort8  to  eq'ip  a  n'ew  fleet,  with  which  they  attacked  Ae 
Genoese  near  Chioggia.     This  place  was  retaken  (24th  June 
iSoTand  the  severe  check  which  the  Genoese  there  received, 
mlv'be  "aid  to  have  decided  the  command  of  the  sea  in  favour 
of  the  Venetians      But  what  contributed  still  more  to  the  down- 
tui  the  G  noese,  was  the  instability  of  their  government,  and 


T 


niioD  V.    A.  s.  1300^1453. 


18» 


lily  reigned  at  Hilui  till 

or  Sfem. 

B«ped  the  catutrofAe  of 
ipicuoua  were  thoM  of 
ty  of  FloTence,  like  all 
to  a  repnblic  about  the 
nent  underwent  fret^uent 
locracy  about  the  middle 
I  factions  which  had  agi- 
nes  to  elect  a  magistrate 
,  or  Captain  of  Justice ; 
abitants  under  his  stand* 
;ion  were  insufficient  to 
'hese  internal  imitations, 
les  from  enriching  them- 
id  manufactures.  They 
fCting  the  greater  part  of 
ally  that  of  Pisa,  which 
ic  of  Lucca  was  the  only 
in  spite  of  all  the  efforts 
it.     The  republican  form 

till  the  year  1630,  when 
B  sovereignty,  under  the 

I  Genoese  to  quarrel  with 
inst  the  Venetians.     The 
ted  each  other,  both  in  the 
s  gave  rise  to  a  long  and 
most  memorable  of  which 
le  Genoese,  after  a  signal 
Venetians,  before  Pola  in 
irery  midst  of  the  lagoons 
ioggia.     Peter  Doria  made 
1  have  even  surprised  Ve- 
first  consternation  of  the 
iting  whether  they  should 
1  the  is«le  of  Candia.     The 
jave  them  time  to  recover 
5  pair,  they  made  extraordi- 
h  which  they  attacked  the 
:e  was  retaken  {24th  June 
he  Genoese  there  received, 
nmand  of  the  sea  in  favour 
lied  still  more  to  the  down- 
ly  of  their  government,  and 


the  internal  commotions  of  the  repubric.  Agitated  by  continual 
diTisions  between  the  nobles  and  the  common  citiaens,  and  in- 
capable of  managing  their  own  affairs,  they  at  length  surrender- 
ed themselves  to  the  power  of  strangers.  Volatile  and  incon- 
stant, and  equally  impatient  of  liberty  as  of  servitude,  these 
fickle  republicans  underwent  a  frequent  change  of  masters. 
Twice  (1396-1458)  they  put  themselves  under  the  protMtionof 
the  Kings  of  France.  At  length  they  discarded  the  French, 
and  chose  for  their  protector  either  the  Marquis  of  Montferrat 
or  the  Duke  of  Milan.  Finally,  from  the  year  1464,  the  city  of 
Genoa  wasconstanUy  regarded  as  a  dependency  of  the  dutchy 
of  Milan,  until  1628,  when  it  recovered  once  more  its  ancient 
state  of  independence.  ,     „    j    i-  •       .u  . 

While  tlie  Republic  of  Genoa  was  gradually  declining,  that 
of  Venice  was  every  day  acquiring  new  accessions  of  power. 
The  numerous  establishments  which  they  hod  formed  in  the 
Adriatic  Gulf  and  the  Eastern  Seas,  together  with  the  additional 
viirour  which  they  derived  from  the  introduction  of  the  heredi- 
tary aristocracy,  were  highly  advantageous  to  the  progress  of 
their  commerce  and  marine.     The  treaty  which  they  concluded 
with  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  (1343.)  by  guaranteeing  to  their  re- 
public an  entire  liberty  of  commerce  in  the  ports  of  Syria  and 
Ervpt,  as  also  the  privilege  of  having  consuls  at  Alexandria  and 
Dunascus,  put  it  in  their  power  gradually  to  appropriate  to 
themselves  the  whole  trade  of  India,  and  to  maintain  it  against 
the  Genoese,  who  had  disputed  with  them  the  commerce  of  the 
East,  as  well  as  the  command  of  the  sea.     These  successes  en- 
couraged  the  Venetians  to  make  new  acquisitions  ;  the  turbu- 
lent state  ofLombardy  having  afforded  them  an  opportunity  of 
enlariring  their  dominions  on  the  continent  of  Italy,  where  at 
first  they  had  possessed  only  the  single  dogeship  of  Venice,  and 
the  small  province  of  Isiria.     They  seized  on  Treviso,  and  the 
whole  Trevisan  March  (1388.)  which  they  took  from  the  pow- 
erful house  of  Carrara.     In  1420  they  again  got  possession  of 
Dalmalia,  which  they  conquered  from  Sigismund,  King  of  Hun- 
oarv.     This  conquest  paved  the  way  for  that  of  Friuli,  which 
Fhev  took  about  the  same  time  from  the  Patriarch  of  Aquileia, 
an  ally  of  the  King  of  Hungary.     At  length,  by  a  «>cce88«onof 
Bood  fortune,  they  detached  from  the  dutchy  of  Milan  (1404) 
the  cities  and  territories  of  Vicenia,  Belluno,  Verona,  Padua, 
Brescia,  Bergamo,  and  Cremona  (1464,)  and  thus  formed  a  con- 
siderable  estate  on  the  mainland.  j  v    . 

Naples,  during  the  course  of  this  period,  was  governed  by  • 
daaceSdant  of  Charles,  of  the  first  House  of  Anjou  •»*  yo-g^ 
brother  of  St.  UuU.    Queen  Joan  L,  daughter  of  Robert,  Kiag 


M 


190 


CBAPTBK  VI. 


of  Naples,  having  no  children  of  her  own,  adopteo  a  yoanger 
nrince  of  the  AngeTine  family,  Charles  of  Dununo,  whom  she 
destined  as  her  successor,  after  having  ^iven  him  her  niece  in 
marriage.    This  ungrateful  prince,  in  his  eagerness  to  possess 
the  crown,  took  arms  against  the  Queen  his  benefactress,  uid 
compelled  her  to  solicit  the  aid  of  foreign  powers.   It  was  on  this 
occasion  that  Joan,  after  rescinding  and  annulling  her  former 
deed  of  adoption,  made  another  in  favour  of  Louis  I.,  younger 
brother  of  Charles  V.,  King  of  France,  and  founder  of  the  second 
House  of  Aniou.     But  the  succours  of  that  prince  come  too  late 
to  save  the  Queen  from  the  hands  of  her  cruel  enemy.  Charles    < 
having  made  himself  master  of  Naples  and  of  the  Queen's  per- 
son (1382,)  immediately  put  her  to  death,  and  maintained  him- 
self on  the  throne,  in  spite  of  his  adversary  Louis  of  Anjou,  who 
obtained  nothing  more  of  the  Queen's  estates  than  the  single 
county  of  Provence,  which  he  transmitted  to  his  descendants, 
together  with  his  claim  on  the  kingdom  of  Naples.     Joan  II., 
daughter  and  heiress  of  Charles  of  Durazzo,  having  been  at- 
tacked by  Louis  III.  of  Anjou,  who  wished  to  enforce  the  rights 
of  adoption  which  had  descended  to  him  from  his  grandfather 
Louis  I.,  she  implored  the  protection  of  Alphonso  V.,  King  of 
Arragon,  whom  she  adopted  and  decLired  her  heir  (1421 ;)  but 
afterwards,  having  quarrelled  with  that  prince,  she  changed  her 
resolution,  and  passed  a  new  act  of  adoption  (1423)  in  favour  of 
that  same  Louis  of  Anjou  who  had  just  made  war  against  her. 
Rcn«  of  Anjou,  the  brother  and  successor  of  that  prince,  took 
possession  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples  on  the  death  of  Joan  II. 
(1436 ;)  but  he  was  e*p«lled  by  the  King  of  Arragon  (1446.) 
who  had  procured  from  Pope  Eugenius  IV.  the  investiture  of 
that  kingdom,  which  he  transmitted  to  his  natural  son  Ferdi- 
nand, descended  from  a  particular  branch  of  the  Kings  of  Na- 
ples.    The  rights  of  the  second  race  of  Angevine  princes,  were 
transferred  to  the  Kings  of  France,  along  with  the  county  of 

Provence  (1481.)  ,  .        ,  •     .•     u  .u 

Spain,  which  was  divided  into  a  variety  of  sovereignties  both 
Christian  and  Mahometan,  presented  at  this  time  a  kind  of  sepa- 
rate  or  distinct  continent,  whose  interests  had  almost  nothing  in 
common  with  the  rest  of  Europe.  The  Kings  of  Navarre,  Cas- 
tillo, and  Arragon,  disagreeing  among  themselves,  and  occupied 
with  the  internal  affairs  of  their  own  kingdoms,  had  b^t  little 
leisure  to  attempt  or  accomplish  any  foreign  enterprise.  Of  all 
the  Kings  of  Castille  at  this  penodi,  the  jnost  famous,  in  the 
wars  against  the  Moor.,  mm  AlphoB«>  XL  The  Mahometan 
kings7f  Morocco  and  CtosodUt  hatittgr^nited  thaw  forces,  laid 
^iB^  to  the  city  of  T«»iflh  i»  AxdiAvtm,  whew  AlphoDsoi  *•• 


T 


ration  V.    A.  D.  IdOO— 1463. 


191 


wn,  adopieQ  a  yonoMr 
of  DuituBO,  whom  sne 
^iven  him  her  niece  in 
us  eagerness  to  possess 
his  benefactress,  and 
powers.   It  was  on  this 
annulling  her  former 
ur  of  Louis  I.,  younger 
nd  founder  of  the  second 
that  prince  came  too  late 
3r  cruel  enemy.  Charles 
and  of  the  Queen's  per- 
th,  and  maintained  him* 
iry  Louis  of  Anjou,  who 
I  estates  than  the  single 
itted  to  his  descendants, 
m  of  Naples.     Joan  II., 
)urazzo,  having  been  at- 
hed  to  enforce  the  rights 
lim  from  his  grandfather 
>f  Alphonso  v..  King  of 
red  her  heir  (1421 ;)  but 
prince,  she  changed  her 
iption  (1423)  in  favour  of 
It  made  war  against  her. 
sssor  of  that  prince,  took 
on  the  death  of  Joan  II. 
i.ing  of  Arragon  (1446,) 
us  IV.  the  investiture  of 
;o  his  natural  son  Ferdi- 
mch  of  the  Kings  of  Na- 
if Angevine  princes,  were 
ilong  with  the  county  of 

iety  of  sovereignties  both 
it  this  time  a  kind  of  sepa- 
sts  had  almost  nothing  in 
le  Kings  of  Navarre,  Cas- 
themselves,  and  occupied 
kingdoms,  had  but  little 
>reiga  enterprise.  Of  all 
,  thejnoat  famous,  in  the 
ID  XL  The  Mahometan 
f  waited  dieir  forces,  kud 
UM,  whew  Alphonaot  «>• 


■iited  by  the  Kins  of  Portugal,  ventured  to  attack  them  in  the 
neighbourhood  oflhat  place.  He  gained  a  complete  victory  oror 
the  Moors  (1340 ;)  and  this  was  followed  by  the  conquest  of 
various  other  cities  and  districts ;  among  others,  Alcala-Real, 
and  Algeziras. 

While  the  Kiujpfs  of  Castille  were  extending  their  conquests 
in  the  interior  of  Spain,  those  of  Arragon,  hemmed  in  by  the 
Castillians,  were  obliged  to  look  for  aggrandizement  abroad. 
They  possessed  the  country  of  Barcelona  or  Catalonia,  in  virtue 
of  the  marriage  of  Count  Raymond  Berenger  IV.  with  Donna 
Petronilla,  heiress  of  the  kingdom  of  Arragon.  To  this  they 
added  the  county  of  Rousillon,  and  the  seignory  or  lordship  of 
Montpelier,  both  of  which,  as  well  as  Catalonia,  belonged  to  the 
sovereignty  of  France.  Don  James  I.,  who  conquered  the  king- 
dom of  Valencia  and  the  Balearic  Isles,  gave  these,  with  Rou- 
sillon and  Montpelier,  to  Don  James  his  younger  son,  and  who 
was  a  descendant  of  the  Kings  of  Majorca,  the  last  of  whom, 
Don  James  III.,  sold  Montpelier  to  France  (1349.)  Don  Pedro 
III.,  King  of  Arragon,  and  eldest  son  of  Don  James  I.,  took 
Sicily,  as  we  have  already  seen,  from  Charles  I.  of  Anjou. 
Ferdinand  II.,  a  younger  son  of  Don  Pedro,  formed  a  separate 
branch  of  the  kings  of  Sicily,  on  the  extinction  of  which  (1409,) 
that  kingdom  reverted  to  the  crown  of  Arnigon.  Sardinia  was 
incorporated  with  the  kingdom  of  Arragon  by  Dun  James  II., 
who  had  conquered  it  from  the  Pisans.  Finally,  Alphonso  V., 
King  of  Arragon,  having  deprived  the'Angevines  of  the  king- 
dom of  Naples,  established  a  distinct  line  of  Neapolitan  kings. 
This  kingdom  was  at  length  united  with  the  monarchy  of  Arra- 
gon by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic. 

In  Portugal,  the  legitimate  line  of  kings,  descendants  of 
Henry  of  Burgundy,  had  failed  in  Don  Ferdinand,  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Don  Pedro  III.  This  prince  had  an  only  daughter 
named  Beatrix,  born  in  criminal  intercourse  with  Eleanora 
Tellez  de  Meneses,  whom  he  had  token  from  her  lawful  hus- 
band. Being  desirous  to  make  this  princess  his  successor,  he 
married  her,  at  the  age  of  eleven,  to  John  I.,  King  of  Castille  ; 
securing  the  throne  to  the  son  who  should  be  born  of  this  union, 
and  failing  him,  to  the  King  of  Castille,  his  son-in-law.  Fer- 
dinand dying  soon  after  this  marriage,  Don  Juan,  his  natural 
brother,  and  gmnd-maater  of  the  order  of  Aviez,  knowing  the 
aversion  of  the  Portuguese  for  the  Castillian  sway,  turned  this 
to  his  own  advantage,  by  seizing  the  regency,  of  which  he  had 
deprived  the  Queen-dowager.  The  King  of  Castille  imme« 
diatflly  laid  nMt  to  Lisbon ;  but  having  miscarried  in  this  en* 
terpriie,  the  StatM  of  Portugal  assembled  at  Coimbra,  and 


eKATttftVl. 

conferred  ihe  crown  o^^'>Ji,J^»"\^'''^!^,^^!!'!Z!i!t^ 
wune  of  John  the  Boitard.  This  prince,  aided  with  troop  from 
EnJlwid,  en«ged  the  Castillians  and  their  all  «  the  French, 
ft  tWamouftattle  fought  on  the  plains  of  A^jubarota  (14th 
Auffust  1386.)  The  Portuguese  remained  masters  of  the  Held, 
and  John  the  Bastard  succeeded  in  maintaining  himself  on  the 
Throne  of  Portugal.  The  war  however,  contmued  sever, 
vears  between  the  Portuguese  and  the  Castilhans,  and  did  not 
ferminVte  till  1411.  By  the  peace  which  was  then  concluded, 
HeZlII.  onof  John^..  £ng  of  Castillo,  agreed  never  to 
uro«  the  caiir-)  of  Queen  Beatrix,  his  mother-in-law,  who  had 
3h&et"john7he  Bastard  founded  a  newd^nasty^f  kmgs, 
who  occupied  the  throne  of  Portugal  from  1386  to  1580. 

In  FraSce.  the  direct  line  of  kmgs,  descendants  of  Hugh 
Cait.  havini  become  extinct  in  the  sons  of  Philm  the  ^r 
Ae  crown  passed  to  the  collateral  branch  o   Valo.s  (1^) 
which  fumisW  a  series  of  thirteen  kings,  during  a  period  of 
two  hundred  and  sixty-one  years.  u-  u  u  j  .»..,«» 

The  rivalry  between  France  and  England,  which  had  sprung 

r/tiffc?^^^^^^  "S'th:  x 

nuarrels  of  Uie  two  nations  had  bee'n  limited  to  some  particular 
Jerrtory.  or  province;  but  now  they  dsputed  even  the  suedes- 
Sn  to  the  thVone  of  France,  which  the  kings  of  England  claimed 
as  "heir  rS      Edward  III.,  by  his  mother,  Isabella  of  France, 
was  nephew  to  Charles  IV.,  the  last  of  the  Capet.an  kings  ma 
direct  line.     He  claimed  the  succession  in  opposition  to  Ph  lip 
V   .  surnamed  de  Valois,  who  being  cousin-gjman  to  Charies. 
was  one  dejrree  more  remote  than  the  King  of  England.     Ihe 
rmo?Ed'w«d  was  opposed  bv  the  SaHcUwh^h  excluded 
fpmales  from  the  succession  to  the  throne  ;  but,  according  to  the 
inl^metSn  of  that  prince,  the  law  admitted  his  right,  and 
mus?  £  understood  L  referring  to  females  nersonatly.  who 
were  excluded  on  account  of  the  weakness  of  their  sex,  and 
not^otSmaledescendanU.    Granting  that  his  mother,  Isa- 
Kui  cou  d  not  herself  aspire  to  the  crown,  he  maintained  that 
^iarU  the^ight  o^^^^^^  ^l 

SdedTnTvSof'ptl^Xp^^^^^ 
fcomaire  to  that  prince  for  the  dutchy  of  Guienne ;  but  he  laid 
5rcWm'oSl??own«ntil  1337.  4en  he  assumed  the  titte 
lUHs  of  the  King  of  France.  The  '^^ ''^.'^'^.^f » /J 
1338.  was  renewed  daring  several  reigns,  for  the  »?«•  «» JJ 
Sri  yews,  and  ended  with  the  entire  expulsion  of  theBng- 
lish  from  France. 


mn  in  history  by  th« 
aided  with  troops  from 
their  allies  the  French, 
18  of  Aljubarota  (14th 
led  masters  of  the  field, 
itaining  himself  on  the 
tet,  continued   several 
yastillians,  and  did  not 
;h  was  then  concluded, 
istille,  agreed  never  lo 
nother-in-law,  who  had 
a  new  dynasty  of  kings, 
om  1385  to  1580. 
,  descendants  of  Hugh 
ins  of  Philip  the  Fair, 
ranch  of  Valois  (1328,) 
igs,  during  a  period  of 

jland,  which  had  sprung 
d  a  more  hostile  charac- 

Valois.  Till  then,  the 
mited  to  some  particular 
isputed  even  the  succes- 
ings  of  England  claimed 
)ther,  Isabella  of  France, 
r  the  Capetian  kings  in  a 
1  in  opposition  to  Philip 
(usin-german  to  Charles, 
King  of  England.  The 
alic  l«w,  which  excluded 
me  ;  but,  according  to  the 

admitted  his  right,  and 
females  personally,  who 
ikness  of  their  sex,  and 
ing  that  his  mother,  Isa- 
:rowD,  he  maintained  that 

which  qualified  him  for 
ice,  however,  having  de- 
f  England  did  fealty  and 
of  Guienne ;  but  he  laid 
lien  he  assumed  the  title 
rhe  war  which  began  in 
reigns,  for  the  space  of  a 
itire  expulsion  of  dieEng- 


/    * 


r" 


Zengkii  KKan,  the  Mogul  Prinee.     Vol.  I— p.  166. 


Detth  of  Ckmstantine  XV.  in  dtfending  Contlun- 

tmapu.  FW.i-p.aoe. 


-Jt 


JiMt.ti.   ■■<■—•>.-. 


Vol.  I— p.  1S5. 


^ending  Cotutan- 


-JL^w 


niioD  V.    A.  D.  190O— 14A3.  M 

Nothinff  could  be  more  wretched  then  the  flituation  of  this 
kingdom  during  the  reign  of  Charles  VI  That  prince  having 
fallen  into  a  state  of  insanity  in  the  flower  of  his  age,  two  pnr* 
ties,  those  of  Burgundy  and  Orleans,  who  had  disputed  with 
each  other  about  the  regency,  divided  the  Court  into  factions, 
and  kindled  the  flames  of  civil  war  in  the  four  corners  of  the 
kingdom.  John  the  Fearless,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  and  uncle 
to  the  king,  caused  Louis,  Duke  of  Orleans,  the  King's  own 
brother,  to  be  assassinated  at  Paris  (1407.)  He  himself  was 
assassinated  in  his  turn  (1419)  on  the  bridge  of  Montereau, 
in  the  very  presence  of  the  Dauphin,  who  was  afterwards  king, 
under  the  name  of  Charles  VII.  These  dissensions  gnve  the 
Endish  an  opportunity  for  renewing  the  war.  Henry  the  V. 
of  England  gained  the  famous  battle  of  Agincourt,  which 


followed  by  the  conquest  of  all  Normandy.  Isabella  of  Btt- 
varia  then  abandoned  the  faction  of  Orleans,  and  the  party  of 
her  son  the  Dauphin,  and  joined  that  of  Burgundy.  Philip 
the  Good,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  and  son  of  Jv'>hn  the  Fearleas, 
being  determined  to  revenge  the  death  of  his  father,  which  he 
laid  to  the  charge  of  the  Dauphin,  entered  into  a  negotiation 
with  England,  into  which  he  contrived  to  draw  Queen  Isabella, 
and  the  imbecile  Charles  the  VI.  By  the  treaty  of  peace  con* 
eluded  at  Troyes  in  Champagne  (1430,)  it  was  agreed  that 
Catharine  of  France,  daughter  of  Charles  VI.  and  Isabella  of 
Bavaria,  should  espouse  Henry  V.,  and  that,  on  the  death  of 
the  King,  the  crown  should  pass  to  Henry,  and  the  children  tit 
his  marriage  with  the  Princess  of  France  ;  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  Dauphin,  who,  as  an  accomplice  in  the  murder  of  the  Duke 
of  Burgundy,  was  declared  to  have  lost  his  rights  to  the  crown, 
and  was  banished  from  the  kingdom.  Henry  V.  died  in  the 
flower  of  his  age,  and  his  death  was  followed  soon  after  by  that 
of  Charles  VI.  Henry  VI.,  son  of  Henry  V.  and  Cathanne  of 
France,  being  then  proclaimed  Kins:  of  England  and  France, 
fixed  his  residence  at  Paris,  and  had  for  his  regents  his  two 
uncles,  the  Dukes  of  Bedford  and  Gloucester. 

Such  was  the  preponderance  of  the  English  and  Burgundian 
party  in  France  at  this  period,  that  Charles  VII.,  commonly 
called  the  Dauphin,  more  than  once  saw  himself  upon  the 
.  i>oint  of  being  expelled  the  kingdom.  He  owed  his'  safety  en* 
tirely  to  the  appearance  of  the  famous  Joan  of  Are,  called  the 
Maid  of  OrleaiiB.  This  extraordinary  woman  revived  the 
drooping  county  of  the  French.  She  compelled  the  Bng^iah 
to  raise  the  siege  of  Orleans,  and  brought  Ae  Khtg  to  he 
crowned  at  Rheimi  (1429.)  But  what  contribnted  st^  more  to 
retrieve  the  party  of  Charlea  VII.,  was  the  reeoaeiliatioii  et  thut 

VOL.  I.  17 


SM 


CHArTM  VI. 


mince  with  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  which  took  piece  «t  the 
K^e  o7  Arm  (1435.)  The  Duke  having  then  united  We 
K  :  th  r.o  tf  tic  King  the  Engl..h  -r*  ;;.;»»-^7i 
expelled  from  France  (14fi3.)  the  smgU  city  of  Cnla.t  being  ell 
that  remnined  to  'hem  of  their  former  .onqueBt.. 

An  important  '-o'^tion  happened   in  th     g"vern--t^.of 

St?el^g:u7'?y\he?x^^^^^^^^^^  En/li^h.  and  the 

fe  onriUat  on  o?va  ious  narliei  that  took  place  i"  con»cquonce 
TTeSdKy^tem.  .hicl;  till  then  ^^^  r  v»  JJ 'n  F-"  fd^^ 

ho  feudal  n  ode  of  warfare.     This  prince  also  'nst.tuted  Ur  - 
Mra.   augmented  '"  5"""%°J '^'^,';;  of  the««  estiblishments, 

tagenets,  those  of  Lancaster  ??«   *  Yv    ihe  first  king  of  the 
time  the  right  to  the  crown.    "«"'y/;-J,'  „r  0-*.  |)uke  of 

House  of  V«^«r„^oX°aVilltgo&^^^^^^ 
Lancaster,  and  grandson  of  Edward  "J^  '^'"K      ^   «  ^^  .     ^.^ 

Trt  tlTamT  But "  .t"d  ^f  enforcing  the  rights 
of  Parliament  UJww.J  »»»  iiibw»«  ,„^_ jfi,.Up,  he  rested 
ihich  he  inherited  from  hi.  father  and  ^»dfath«  Ji*  ^^ 
his  claims  enUrely  upon  those  which  J'.'^'^S""  °"  » g„nd. 
to  him  in  right  o/hi.  '"<'^»'"' ^tlc^^^^^^^^^ 
daughter  of  Edward.  """•'"^^^""SJr^  ^as  the  eldest  son 
ThiS  prince,  according  to  a  W^"  ^rJ^^J  e«^^^^^^^^  f"™  ^« 
of  Henry  III.,  who.  it  *"  »;'|'.5^d  l!  on"S  of  his  de- 
throne  hy  hie  younger  bfother  tawaro  i., »«  »»- 


T 


ich  took  place  at  the 
aving  then  united  bin 
liih  were  in  their  turn 
city  of  Calais  being  «ll 
nquesti. 

in  the   government  of 

The  royal  authority 

f  the  English,  and  the 

Ik  place  in  consequence. 

prevailed  in  France,  fell 

|he  first  king  who  estab* 

is  succcsaorx  to  abandon 

nee  oIno  institulpd  Cot't' 

riiy  the  expense  of  their 

thority,  a  certain  impost 

*-d'armes.     This  stand- 

V  to  six  thoii!fand  men, 

Kile  the  royal    finances 

of  these  establishments, 

y  over  their  vassuU  that 

iion  to  prescribe  laws  to 

le  feudal  system.     The 

ttle  resistance  against 

I'hiie  the  kincs,  imposing 

)enRed  with  tne  necessity 

;  same  prince  secured  the 

St  the  encroachments  of 

ing  several  of  the  decrees 

lused  to  be  passed  in  the 

1  published  under  the  title 

igning  family  of  the  Plan- 
>rk,  contested  fpr  a  long 
IV.,  the  first  king  of  the 

John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of 
II.  King  of  England.  He 
whom  he  deposed  by  act 

of  enforcing  the  rights 
nd  grandfather,  he  rested 
he  sdleged  had  devolved 
of  Lancaster,  great  grand- 
:hback,  Earl  of  Lancaster, 
adition,  was  the  eldest  son 

been  excluded  from  the 
d  I.,  on  account  of  his  de- 


e 


mioD  V.    i.  D.  1300—1453. 


100 


fonnity.  This  tradition  prored  useful  to  Henry  IV.  in  rveludinf 
the  rights  of  the  House  of  Clarence,  who  preceded  him  in  *b« 
order  of  succession.  This  latter  family  was  descended  from 
Lionel,  Duke  of  Clarence,  and  elder  brother  of  John  of  Gaunt. 
Philippine,  daughter  of  Lionel,  was  married  to  Edward  Morti- 
mer, Dy  whom  she  had  a  son,  Roger,  whom  the  Parliament,  by 
an  act  passed  in  1386,  declared  presumptive  heir  to  the  crown. 
Ann  Mortimer,  the  daughter  of  Roger,  married  Richard,  Duke  of 
York,  son  of  Edward  Langley,  who  was  the  younger  brother 
of  John  of  Gaunt,  and  thus  transferred  the  right  of  Lionel  (o 
the  Royal  House  of  York. 

The  Princes  of  the  House  of  Lancaster  are  known  in  Eng- 
lish history  by  the  name  of  the  Red  Rose,  while  those  of  York 
were  designated  by  that  of  the  White  Rose.  The  former  of 
these  Houses  occupied  the  throne  for  a  period  of  sixty-ihree 
years,  during  the  reigns  of  Henry  IV.,  v.,  VI,  It  was  under 
the  feeble  reign  of  Henry  VI.  that  the  House  of  York  began  to 
advance  their  right  to  the  crown>  and  that  the  civil  war  broke 
out  between  the  two  Roses.  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  and  heir 
to  the  claims  of  Lionel  and  Mortimer,  was  the  first  to  raise  the 
standard  in  this  war  of  competition  (1462,)  which  continued 
more  than  thirty  years,  and  was  one  of  the  most  cruel  and  san- 
guinary recorded  in  history.  Twelve  pitched  battles  were 
fought  between  the  two  Rosesi  eiffhty  princes  of  the  blood  pe- 
rished in  the  contest,  and  England,  during  the  whole  time,  pre- 
sented a  tragical  spectacle  of  horror  and  carnage.  Edward  IV., 
son  of  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  and  grandson  of  Ann  Mortimer, 
ascended  the  throne  (1461,)  which  he  had  stained  with  the  blood 
of  Henry  IV.,  and  of  several  other  Princes  of  the  House  of 
Lancaster. 

In  Scotland,  the  male  line  of  the  ancient  kings  having  become 
extinct  in  Alexander  III.,  a  crowd  of  claimants  appeared  on  the 
field,  who  disputed  with  each  other  the  succession  of  the  throiit.' 
The  chief  of  these  competitors  were  the  two  Scottish  families 
of  Baliol  and  Bruce,  both  descended  by  the  mother's  side  from 
the  Royal  Family.  Four  princes  of  these  contending  families 
reigned  in  Scotland  until  the  year  1371,  when  the  crown  passed 
from  the  House  of  Bruce  to  that  of  Stuart.  Robert  II.,  son  of 
Walter  Stuart  and  Marjory  Bruce,  succeeded  his  uncle  David 
II.,  and  in  his  family  the  throne  remained  until  the  Union,  when 
Scotland  was  united  to  England  about  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  Under  the  government  of  the  Stuarts, 
the  royal  authority  acquired  fresh  energy  after  being  long  re- 
strained and  circumscribed  by  a  turbulent  nobility.  Towards 
the  middle  of  the  fiAeenth  century,  James  I.,  a  very  accomplished 


,  J 


,  i  .tUiS7^%*iif^SMilfff^ 


prince,  gate  the  first  blow  to  the  feudal  system  «*  /^  •"'«• 
SwJpower  of  the  grandees.    He  depnved  them  of  several  of 
S  CTOwn-lands  which  they  had  usurped.  '"^  confiscated  the 
Sllirty  of  some  of  the  most  audacious  whom  he  had  con- 
nJ?/to  eLution.    James  II.  followed  the  examrie  of  his 
SSer.    He  strengthened  the  royal  authontv,  by  humbling  the 
Swerful  family  of  Douglas,  as  well  as  by  t^e  wise  law,  which 
ha  nrevailed  with  his  Parliament  to  adopt.      .     .       ^        , 
^  -fieThie  kingdoms  of  the  North,  after  h^^S .  «^»  j^«;"f 
agitated  by  internal  dissensions,  were  at  length  united  into  a 
SemonarchybyMargaret.caUedtheSemiram.sofA^^^^^^ 
This  princess  was  daughter  of  Valdemar  III.,  the  last  King  of 
Denmark  of  the  ancient  reigning  family,  and  widow  of  Haco 
A^  Kinir  of  Norway.     She  was  first  elected  Queen  of  Den- 
Sik.  ^1  Aen  of  /orway.  after  the  death  of  her  «on   Olaus 
V    whom  she  had  by  her  marriage  with  Haco,  and  who  died 
wiUirutTeaving  any  posterity  (1387.)     The  Swedes,  d.scon- 
JILted  US  thfir  If in|,  Albert  of  Mecklenburg,  likewise  be- 
C2l7ht  Iwn  upo^r:  this  princess      Albert  was^n^ 
and  made  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Fahlekoeping  (1389-      ^j^« 
whole  of  Leden,  from  that  time,  acknowledged  the  authority 
Soaeen  Marearet.     Being  desirous  of  uniting  the  three  king- 
SiSSoSSebody^iUic-sheassem^^^^^^^^^^ 
Estates  at  Calmar  (1397.)  and  there  caused  her  g«f -J1«P;«^- 
Brie,  son  of  V^Uislaus.  Duke  of  Pomerania,  and  Mary  of 
Mecklenburff,  daughter  of  Ingeburg,  her  own  sister,  to  be  re- 
KTndcrowJef  as  her  successor.     The  act  which  ratified 

Ae  Jer^tual  and  irrevocable  union  of  tJ^i^^'^^-^f^ITJ^S 
•DDrovJd  in  that  assembly.  It  provided,  that  the  united  states 
SJSd  in  future,  have  but  one  and  the  same  king,  who  should 
£  cbo  en  with  the  common  consent  of  the  Senators  and  Depu- 
SL.  ofXThreeWngdoms,  that  they  should  always  give  the 
i^fere^e  to  Sie  dXndants  of  Eric,  if  there  were  any ;  that 
^  ZTkingdoms  should  assist  each  other  with  their  combined 
^c«Sainsfall  foreign  enemies;  that  each  J^JJ^^  j^^J^^ 
preserve  its  own  constitution,  its  senate,  and  national  legiMa 
fure.  and  be  governed  conformably  to  its  own  laws. 

This  unioJ,  how  formidable  soever  it  inight  apneu  at  drst 
riirwas  by  no  means  firmly  consolidated.  A  federal  system 
Kree  monarchies.  divid«l  by  mutual  jealousies- a^^^  M>J 
•imiUritv  in  their  laws,  manners,  and  mstitutious,  could  preMnt 
SSSgUher  «»Ud  or  durable  Thej«e«WecUo^^ 
Whkh  the  kings  of  the  union  who  succeeded  Margaret  showea 
ftTthe  DaS  the  preference  which  they  g^^.  t»je»  ^  J* 
^triWtioa  of  fiivouis  and  places  of  trust,  and  U»e  tone  of  sa 


•ystem  and  the  exorbi- 
ved  them  of  MTeral  of 
and  confiscated  the 
loua  whom  he  had  con- 
wed  the  example  of  his 
horitv,  by  humbling  the 
by  the  wise  law^  which 

lOpt. 

after  haTing  been  long 
at  length  united  into  a 
Semiramis  of  the  North. 
Aar  III.,  the  last  King  of 
ily,  and  widow  of  Haco 
St  elected  Queen  of  Den- 
death  of  her  son,  Olaus 
with  Haco,  and  who  died 
.)     The  Swedes,  discon- 
ecklenburg,  likewise  be- 
Albert  was  vanquished 
hlekoeping  (1389.)     The 
cnowledged  the  authority 
of  uniting  the  three  king- 
assembled  their  respective 
caused  her  grand-nephew 
Pomerania,  and  Mary  of 
her  own  sister,  to  be  re- 
The  act  which  ratified 
tf  the  three  kingdoms,  was 
ided,  that  the  united  states 
he  same  king,  who  should 
of  the  Senators  and  Dcpu- 
ly  should  always  give  the 
ic,  if  there  were  any  ;  that 
t  other  with  their  combined 
hat  each  kingdom  should 
late,  and  national  legi'ila- 
>  its  own  laws, 
sr  it  might  appear  at  first 
lidated.    A  federal  system 
ual  jealousies,  and  by  dis- 
I  institutions,  could  present 
The  predilection,  besides, 
icceeded  Margaret  showed 
;h  they  gave  them  in  the 
'  trust,  and  the  tone  of  su 


FKBioD  y.    A.  0.  1300 — 1453. 


107 


periority  which  they  affected  towards  their  allies,  tended  natu- 
rally to  foster  animosity  and  hatred,  and,  abore  all,  to  ezaapente 
the  Swedes  against  the  union.  Eric,  after  a  very  turbulent 
reign,  was  deposed,  and  his  nephew,  Christopher  the  Bavarian, 
was  elected  King  of  the  union  m  his  place.  This  latter  prince 
having  died  without  issue,  the  Swedes  took  this  opportunity  of 
breaking  the  union,  and  choosing  a  king  of  their  own,  Chairles 
Canutson  Bonde,  known  by  the  title  of  Charles  YIII.  It  was 
he  who  induced  the  Danes  to  venture  likewise  on  a  new  elec- 
tion ;  and  this  same  year  they  transferred  their  crown  to  Chris- 
tian, son  of  Thierry,  and  Count  of  Oldenburg,  descended  by 
the  female  side  from  the  race  of  their  ancient  kings.  This 
prince  had  the  good  fortune  to  renew  the  union  with  Norway 
(1450;)  he  likewise  governed  Sweden  from  the  year  1437, 
when  Charle»  VIII.  was  expelled  by  his  subjects,  till  1464, 
when  he  was'  recalled.  But  what  deserves  more  particularly 
to  be  remarked,  is  the  acquisition  which  Christian  made  of  the 

frovinces  of  Sleswick  and  Hoistein,  to  which  he  succeeded 
14%,)  by  a  disposition  of  the  States  of  these  provinces,  after 
the  death  of  Duke  Adolphus,  the  maternal  uncle  of  the  new 
King  of  Denmark,  and  last  male  heir  of  the  Counts  of  Hoi- 
stein, of  the  ancient  House  of  Schauenburg.  Christiax.  I.  was 
the  progenitor  of  all  the  Kings  who  have  since  reigned  in  Den- 
mark and  Norway.  His  grandson  lost  Sweden ;  but,  in  the 
last  century,  the  thrones  both  of  Russia  and  Sweden  were 
occupied  by  princes  of  his  family. 

Russia,  during  the  whole  of  this  period,  groaned  under  the 
degrading  yoke  of  the  Moguls  and  the  Tartars.  The  Grand 
Dukes,  as  well  as  the  other  Russian  princes,  were  obliged  to 
solicit  the  confirmation  of  their  dignity  from  the  Khan  of  Kip- 
zack,  who  granted  or  ref ised  it  at  his  pleasure.  The  dissen- 
sions which  arose  among  the^o  northern  princes,  were  in  like 
manner  submitted  to  his  decision.  When  summoned  to  appear  at 
his  horde,  they  were  obliged  to  repair  thither  without  delay,  and 
often  suffered  the  punishment  of  ignominy  and  death."  The 
contributions  which  the  Khans  at  first  exacted  from  the  Rus- 
sians in  the  shape  of  gratuitous  donations,  were  converted,  in 
course  of  time,  into  regular  tribute.  Bereke  Khan,  the  suc- 
cessor of  fiatou,  was  the  first  who  levied  this  tribute  by  officers 
of  his  own  nation.  His  successors  increased  still  more  the 
load  of  these  taxes ;  they  e  'en  subjected  the  Russian  prince* 
to  the  performance  of  military'  service. 

The  Grand  Ducal  dignity,  which  for  a  long  time  belonged 
exclusively  to  the  chiefs  of  the  principalities  of  Vladimir  and 
Kiaso,  became  common,  about  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 

17* 


tm,  to  Mverd  «rf  the  othet  piincipditiw,  who  Awed  wioBf 
SS  the  dsminion  of  Russia.  The  onnce.  •/ »«^'  T'^J 
SZo^endco,  Md  seToral  others,  took  the  utle  of  <*«"*  D™: 
?Sga  sh  themselves  from  the  petty  muices  who  were  e^ 
iiSshed  within  theirprincipaliues.  These  *»▼••«»»»' *^3 
iSh  the  internal  broihi  to  which  they  gave  nse.  emboldened 
SLLUhuin  ians  and  Poles  to  carry  their  victorious  arms  wto 
ifess^rT  and  fy  degrees  they  dismembered  the  whole  western 

^tH  ythSlTwho  ^  supposed  to  have  been  of  Jjhe 
J^  race  with  the  ancient  Prussians,  Lethomans.  Liron  ans. 
wd  Esthonians,  inhabited  originally  the  banks  of  the  rivers 
Niemen  and  Wilia;  an  inconsiderable  state,  comprehenchng 
Samoeitia  and  a  pan  of  the  ancient  Palatinates  of  Troki  and 
Srana  After  haVing  been  tributaries  to  the  Russians  for  a 
SgUmeX  prince?  of  Lithuania  shook  off  th^  yoke  a„d 
SSn  to  aggrandize  themselves  at  the  expense  of  the  Grand 
SSes  thS  former  masters.  Towards  the  middle  of  the 
SivenlhSuTy.theypassed  the  Wiliajounded  the  town  ofKier- 

iS^^ind  tooBom  tL^Russians  Braclaw  Novg^ 

ItoSesc.  Bielsk,  Pinsk,  Mozyr,  ?«  o^'^^' M'nJ'.  ^  j^P^^'.^J"' 
«d  Mscislaw.  with  their  extensive  dependencies.  Rmgold 
!n.  the  first  of  these  princes  that  assumed  the  dignity  of  Grand 
nlie  abou  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  flis  succes- 
rSeX  or  MTndow.  harassed  by  the  Teutonic  Knights,  em- 
l!!ppirhristianitv  about  the  year  1252,  and  was  declared  King 

SJmnuTand  became  one  of  the  most  cruel  enemies  of  Ae 
E  an  name.  Gedimin.  who  ascended  the  throne  of  the 
a«nd  Duke  (1316,)  rendered  himself  famous  by  his  new  con- 
SS  After  a  series  of  victories  which  he  gained  over  the 
iCnPrt'eUhowere  supported  bt^^^^^^^^^^ 

MMPosion  of  the  city  and  Principality  of  K-iow  U««"-)  *«»» 
Kole  of  Uie  Grand  Ltchy  of  Kiow,  and  its  deP?ndent  prmci- 
Shies  on  this  side  the  Dnieper,  were  conquered  in  succesgion 
¥he  Grand  Dukes  of  Lithuania,  who  had  become  formidaWe  to 
Ki  neighbours,  weakened  their  power  ^V  V-^^-^"^«^'^j 
Stoies  among  their  sons  ;  reserving  to  one.  under  the  t.vle  of 
«r«nrl  Duke  the  right  of  superiority  over  the  rest,  pe  mu 
STslS^swJkh  resulted  fro^^i  t'.ese  divisions,  gave  the  Poles 

SiSSUWlgl  the  whL  of  Volhvnia  and  Podolia. 

•f  which  they  had  deprived  the  Russians  (134».)  p^  .,„ 

Nolhing  more  then  remained  of  the  ancient  Russian  Empire 


a,  who  shtfed  UMmf 

ocM  of  Rem,  Twor, 
title  of  Onund  Dukot, 
prineea  who  w«te  et* 

lese  diTisions,  together 
;ave  rise,  emboldened 
•  victorious  arms  into 

red  the  whole  western 

to  have  been  of  the 

Lethonians,  Livonians, 

the  banks  of  the  rirers 

state,  comprehending 

alatinates  of  Troki  and 

to  the  Russians  for  a 

ook  off  their  yoke,  and 

i  expense  of  the  Grand 

rds  the  middle  of  the 

bunded  the  town  of  Kier- 

w,  NoTgoTodek,  Grodno, 

,  Minsk,  Witepsk,  Orza, 

dependencies.     Ringold 

ned  the  dignity  of  Grand 

th  century.    His  succes- 

le  Teutonic  Knights,  em- 

!,  and  was  declared  King 

!  afterwards  returned  to 

ost  cruel  enemies  of  the 

ended  the  throne  of  the 

famous  by  his  new  con- 

hich  he  gained  over  the 

by  the  Tartars,  he  took 

r  of  Kiow  (1320.)     The 

and  its  dependent  princi- 

conquered  in  succession. 

had  become  formidable  to 

ower  by  partitioning  their 

to  one,  under  the  title  of 

over  the  rest.     The  civil 

divisions,  gave  the  Poles 

ties  of  Leopold,  Przemysl, 

om  the  Lithuanians  and 

of  Voihynia  and  Podolia, 

ans  (1349.) 

!  ancient  Russian  Empire 


nuoD  T.    A.  o.  1800—1463. 


IM 


«ic<|>t  tk«  Grand  Datdiy  of  Wolodimir,  >o  called  from  the  town 
of  that  name  on  llie  river  Kliasma,  where  the  Grand  Dukes  of 
B«atera  and  Northern  Russia  had  their  residence,  before  they 
had  fixed  their  capital  at  Moscow ;  which  happened  about  the 
•nd  of  the  thirteenth  or  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century. 
This  Grand  Dutehy,  which  lud  several  dependent  and  subor- 
diaate  principalities,  was  conferred  by  the  Khan  of  Kipzach 
(1380)  on  I  wan  or  John  Danilovitsh,  Prince  of  Bfoscow,  who 
transmitted  it  to  his  descendants.  Demetrius  Iwanovitsb,  grand- 
son of  Iwan,  took  advantage  of  the  turbulence  which  distracted 
the  grand  horde,  and  turned  his  arms  against  the  Tartars.  As* 
sisted  by  several  of  the  Russian  princes  his  vassals,  he  gained 
a  signal  victory  near  the  Don  (1380,)  over  the  Khan  Temnic- 
Mamai,  the  first  which  gained  the  Russians  any  celebrity,  and 
which  procured  Demetrius  the  proud  epithet  of  Domki,  or  con- 
queror of  the  Don.  This  prince,  however,  gained  little  advan- 
tage by  his  victory  ;  and  for  a  long  time  after,  the  Tartars  gave 
law  to  the  Russians  and  made  them  their  tributaries.  Toktamish 
Khan,  after  having  vanquished  and  humbled  Mamai,  penetrated 
as  far  as  Moscow,  sacked  the  city,  and  massacred  a  great  num- 
ber of  the  inhabitants.  Demetrius  was  forced  to  implore  the 
mercy  of  the  ccnqueror,  and  to  send  his  son  a  hostage  to  the 
horde  in  security  for  his  allegiance. 

The  chief  residence  of  the  Teutonic  Order,  which  had  for- 
merly been  at  Verden,  was  fixed  at  Marienburg,  a  city  newly 
built,  which  from  that  time  became  the  capital  of  all  Prussia. 
The  Teutonic  Knights  did  not  limit  their  conquests  to  Prussia ; 
they  took  from  the  Poles  Dantzic  or  Eastern  Pomerania  (1311,) 
situated  between  the  Netze,  the  Vistula,  and  the  Baltic  Sea,  and 
known  since  by  the  name  of  Pomerelia.  This  province  was 
definitively  ceded  to  them,  with  the  territory  of  Culm,  and 
Michelau,  by  a  treaty  of  peace  which  was  signed  at  Kalitz 
(1343.)  The  city  of  Dantzic,  which  was  their  capital,  increased 
considerably  under  the  dominion  of  the  Order,  and  became  one 
of  the  principal  entrepots  for  the  commerce  of  the  Baltic.  01 
all  the  exploits  of  these  Knights,  the  most  enterprising  was  that 
which  had  for  its  object  the  conquest  of  Lithuania.  Religion, 
and  a  pretended  gift  of  the  Emperor  Louis  of  Bavaria,  served 
them  as  a  pretext  for  attacking  the  Lithuanians,  who  were  Pa- 
gans, in  a  murderous  war,  which  continued  almost  without  in- 
terruption for  the  space  of  a  century.  The  Grand  Dukes  of 
Lithuania,  always  more  formidable  after  their  defeat,  defended 
their  liberties  and  independence  with  a  courage  and  perseverance 
almost  miraculous ;  and  it  was  only  by  taking  advantage  of  the 
dissensions  which  had  arisen  in  the  family  of  the  Grand  Duke, 


that  they  .ttcceeded  in  obtaining  ?«••••« ^LL^'SSSm  ^ 
*h.\«H.^  ftf  naice  which  was  concluded  at  IUcianMi«i«.J 

land,  and  the  «<>«'«"'?\,«/„{^.L^J^^^^^  Cru-aders. 

S  eh  .Ceo"!"*''  »'"'  r  .St'T^uS?  S^i.." 

the  fatal  consequence  of  »n'=«'^.''"  „"*?;,  '"  confederacy  against 
cities  of  Prussia  ^nd  Pomerania  to  form  a  co^t^^^^^^^^ 

U4W.)     roiana  vueii  «■/         .u*  „„„niries  now  comprehended 

°';''"  fjrTlSfo^de    who  p^.5,.d,b,  mean,  ot 
r"0«Sj  mL»o  r.e..y  .nd  f-5S,^Vr£  S 

Dwarf,  having  comb  ned  severa    oi  ^^^^^^  ^^^^  ^j^^ 


on  of  Samogitia,  by 

it  Raeknx  (l&i.) 

^atonic  Order  under 

Iter,  added  to  their 

which  was  sold  to 

k.  >*    The  Tentonic 

ess,  about  the  begin> 

e  they  were  become 

under  their  dominion 

Imerania  and  the  New 

Ionia  and  Esthonia.  ** 

of  their  dominions,  a 

:  commerce,  seemed  to 

re.     Nevertheless,  the 

>f  Lithuania  with  Po- 

nians  to  Christianity, 

ance  of  the  Crusaders, 

ccelerated  their  down- 

issession  of  Samogitia, 

by  the  Tarions  treaties 

letween  1411-1496. 

Butonic  Knights — their 

le  burden  of  taxation — 

induced  the  nobles  and 

i  a  confederacy  against 

if  the  Kings  of  Poland. 

ng  a  deed  of  submission 

was  a  long  and  bloody 

e  till  the  peace  of  Thorn 

sion  of  Cfulm,  Michelau 

tries  now  comprehended 

rhe  rest  of  Prussia  was 

promised,  by  means  of 

mage  for  it  to  the  Kings 

!  Order  was  then  trans* 

cl  until  the  time  when  the 

House  of  Brandenburg. 

from  this  state  of  weak- 

ns  of  Boleslaus  III.  and 

slaiis  IV.  surnamed  the 

hese  poncipalities,  was 

1320.)     From  that  time 

1  Poland,  and  was  trans- 

laus.  ^'     The  immediate 

Casimir  the  Great,  who 


^. 


?BtIOD  v.    A.  D.  1300—1453. 


Ml 


renounced  his  righu  of  sovereignty  over  Silflftia  in  favour  of  the 
King  of  Bohemia,  and  afterwards  compensated  this  loss  by  the 
acquisition  of  several  of  the  provinces  of  ancient  Russia.  He 
likewise  took  possession  of  Red  Russia  (1340.)  as  also  of  the 
provinces  of  Volhynia,  Podolia,  Chelm  and  Belz,  which  he  con- 
quered from  the  Grand  Dukes  of  Lithuania  (1349,)  who  had 
formerly  dismembered  them  from  the  Russian  Empire. 

Under  Casimir  the  Great,  another  revolution  happened  in  the 
government  of  Poland.  That  Prince,  having  no  children  of  his 
own,  and  wishing  to  bequeath  the  crown  to  his  nephew  Louis, 
his  sister's  son,  by  Charles  Robert  King  of  Hungary,  convoked 
a  general  assembly  of  the  nation  at  Cracow  (1339,)  and  there 
got  the  succession  of  the  Hungarian  Prince  ratified,  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  legitimate  rights  of  the  Piast  Dynasty,  who  reigned 
in  Masovia  and  Silesia.  This  subversion  of  the  hereditary 
right  of  the  different  branches  of  the  Piasts,  gave  the  Polish 
Nobles  a  pretext  for  interfering  in  the  election  of  their  Kings, 
until  at  last  the  throne  became  completely  elective.  It  also 
afforded  them  an  opportunity  for  limiting  the  power  of  their 
Kings,  and  laying  the  foundation  of  a  republican  and  aristocratic 
government.  Deputies  were  sent  into  Hungary  (1355,)  even 
during  the  life  of  Casimir,  who  obliged  King  Louis,  his  intended 
successor,  to  subscribe  an  act  which  provided  that,  on  his  ac- 
cession to  the  crown,  he  should  .bind  himself,  and  his  successors, 
to  disburden  the  Polish  nobility  of  all  taxes  and  contributions  ; 
that  be  should  never,  under  any  pretext,  exact  subsidies  from 
them ;  and  that,  in  travelling,  he  should  claim  nothing  for  the 
support  of  his  court,  in  any  place  during  his  journey.  The  an- 
cient race  of  the  Piast  sovereigns  of  Poland  ended  with  Casimir 
(1370,)  after  having  occupied  the  throne  of  that  kingdom  for 
several  centuries. 

His  successor  in  Poland  and  Hungary  was  Louis,  surnamed 
the  Great.  In  a  Diet  assembled  in  ISsS,  he  obtained  the  con- 
currence of  the  Poles,  in  the  choice  which  he  had  made  of  Sigis- 
mund  of  Luxembourg,  as  his  son-in-law  and  successor  in  both 
kingdoms.  But  on  the  death  of  Louis,  which  happened  imme- 
diately after,  the  Poles  broke  their  engagement,  and  conferred 
their  crown  on  Hedwiga,  a  younger  daughter  of  that  Prince.  It 
was  stipulated,  that  she  should  marry  Jaaello,  Grand  Duke  of 
Lithuania,  who  agreed  to  incorporate  Lithuania  with  Poland, 
to  renounce  Paganism,  and  embrace  Christianity,  himself  and 
all  his  subjects.  Jagello  was  baptised,  when  he  received  the 
name  of  Uladislaus,  and  was  crowned  King  of  Poland  at  Cracow 
(1386.)  **  It  was  on  the  accession  of  Jagello,  that  Poland  and 
Lithuania,  long  opposed  in  their  interests,  and  implacable  e:  ?mies 


902 


eBARIK  TI. 


T 


of  CMch  other,  wft*  united  ioM  one  body  politic  under  the  m- 
thority  of  one  and  the  sua*  King.  Neverthelesa,  for  nearly 
two  centuries,  Lithuanm  Btill  preserved  its  own  Grand  Dulies, 
who  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  Poland ;  and  it  was  not, 
properly  speaking,  till  the  reign  of  Sirismund  Augustus,  that 
U»e  union  of  the  two  states  was  finally  accomplished  (1569.) 
This  important  union  rendered  Poland  the  preponderatir^  power 
of  the  North.  It  became  fatal  to  the  influence  of  the  Teutonic 
Order,  who  soon  yielded  to  the  united  eflbrts  of  the  Poles  and 
Lithuanians.  .      ,  ,   ,     n  ,•  u 

Uladislaus  Jagello  did  not  obtain  the  assent  of  the  Folish 
nobility  to  the  succession  of  his  son,  except  by  adding  new  pri- 
vileges to  those  which  they  had  obtained  from  his  predecessor. 
He  was  the  first  of  the  Polish  kings  who,  for  the  ourpose  of  im- 
posing an  extraordinary  taxation,  called  in  the  Nuncios  or  De- 
puties of  the  Nobility  to  the  General  Diet  (1404,)  and  established 
the  use  of  Dietines  or  provincial  diets.  His  descendants  enjoyed 
the  crown  until  they  became  extinct,  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  succession,  however,  was  mixed ;  and  although  the  princes 
of  the  House  of  Jagello  might  regard  themselves  as  hereditary 
possessors  of  the  kingdom,  nevertheless,  on  every  change  ol 
reign,  it  was  necessary  that  the  crown  should  be  conferred  by 
the  choice  and  consent  of  the  nobility. 

In  Hungary,  the  male  race  of  the  ancient  kings,  descendants 
of  Duke  Arpad,  had  become  extinct  in  Andrew  III.  (1301.)  The 
Crown  was  then  contested  by  several  competitors,  and  at  length 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  House  of  Anjou,  the  reigning  family 
of  Naples.  Charles  Robert,  grandson  of  Charles  II.  King  of 
Naples,  by  Ma'ry  of  Hungary,  outstripped  his  rivals,  and  trans- 
milted  the  Crown  to  his  son  Louis,  surnamed  the  Ureat  (IdWS.) 
This  Prince,  characterized  by  his  eminent  qualities,  made  a  dis- 
tinguished figure  among  the  Kings  of  Hungary.  He  conquered 
from  the  Venetians  the  whole  of  Dalmatia,  from  the  frontiers  of 
Istria,  as  far  as  Durazzo ;  he  reduced  the  Princes  of  Moldavia, 
Walachia,  Bosnia  and  Bulgaria,  to  a  state  of  dependence  ;  and 
ot  length  mounted  the  throne  of  Poland  on  the  death  of  his  uncle 
Casimir  the  Great. »  Mary,  his  eldest  daughter,  succeeded 
him  in  the  kingdom  of  Hungary  (1382.)  This  Princess  mar- 
ried Sigismund  of  Luxembourg,  who  thus  united  the  monarchy 
of  Hungary  to  the  Imperial  crown. 

The  reign  of  Sigismund  in  Hungary  was  most  unfortunate, 
and  a  prey  to  continual  disturbances.  He  had  to  sustain  the 
first  war  against  the  Ottoman  Turks  ;  and  with  the  Emperor  of 
Constantinople,  a«  his  ally,  he  assembled  a  formidable  army, 
with  which  he  undertook  the  siege  of  Nicopohs  m  Bulgaria. 


riBioD  V.    A.  B.  1300 — 1443. 


209 


iy  politic  under  the  au* 
Nevertheless,  for  nearly 
its  own  Grand  Dukes, 
Poland ;  and  it  was  not, 
ismund  Attffustus,  that 
ly  accomplished  (1569.) 
ie  preponderating  power 
fluence  of  the  Teutonic 
iflbrts  of  the  Poles  and 

lie  assent  of  the  Polish 
cept  by  adding  new  pri- 
;d  from  his  predecessor. 
10,  for  the  purpose  of  im- 
i  in  the  Nuncios  or  De- 
!t  (1404,)  and  established 
His  descendants  enjoyed 
1  the  sixteenth  century, 
und  although  the  princes 
hemselves  as  hereditary 
ess,  on  every  change  ol 
should  be  conferred  by 

icient  kings,  descendants 
A.ndrew  III.  (1301.)  The 
competitors,  and  at  length 
rijou,  the  reigning  family 
J  of  Charles  II.  King  of 
ped  his  rivals,  and  trans- 
rnamed  the  Great  (1308.) 
ent  qualities,  made  a  dis- 
Ii'ngary.  He  conquered 
latia,  from  the  frontiers  of 
the  Princes  of  Moldavia, 
itate  of  dependence  ;  and 
1  on  the  death  of  his  uncle 
dest  daughter,  succeeded 
2.)  This  Princess  mar- 
thus  united  the  monarchy 

ry  was  most  unfortunate, 

He'  had  to  sustain  the 

and  with  the  Emperor  of 

nbled  a  formidable  army, 

of  Nicopolia  in  Bulgaria. 


Here  he  sustained  a  complete  defeat  by  the  Turks.     ]n  h»"  "• 
ttelt  he  was  compelled  to  embark  on  the  Danube,  and  directed 
Ws  flight  towa?d.'?onst.ntinori^^    This  disaster  ^"  ol'oj^d 
bv  new  misfortunes.    The  malcontents  of  Hungry  "ff"??  ^f" 
Sow^to  Ladislaus,  called  the  Magnanimous,lC.ng  of  Naples, 
who  took  possession  of  Dalmatia,  which  he  afterwards  surren- 
dered  to  the  Venetians.     Desirous  to  provide  for  the  defence 
'and  security  of  his  kingdom.  Sigi^-nd^.jeOy  treaty  wuh 
the  Prince  of  Serv  a,  the  fortress  of  Belgrade  (14^&,)  wnicn,  oy 
U  situation  aT  the  confluence  of  the  5anube  and  the  Save 
seemed  to  him  a  proper  bulwark  to  protect  Hungary  agams  the 
Tu  E    He  transiSittrd  the  crown  of  Hungary  to  »|'-o"-';-^«-j; 
Albert  of  Austria,  who  reigned  on  y  two  years      Th« jvar  w.th 
the  Turks  was  renewed  under  Cladislaus  of  Poland,  son  ol 
Tageio,  and  Successor  to  Alber.  ,ThatPnnce  fought  a  boody 
baflle  with  them  near  Varna  in  Bulgaria  (1444.)     The  fjunf  "' 
Tns  again  sustTined  a  total  defeat,  and  the  King  h.mself  lost  lus 
Se  ^  the  action.  «    The  safety  of  Hungary  then  depended  en- 
iely  on  the  bravery  of  the  celebralBd  John  rfunniades  governor 
of    L  kingdom,  during  the  minority  of  Lud.slaus,  the  posthu- 
mous so^of  Albert  of  Austria.  That  S«"«-l -^^"f^f  J  j^-^H  ' 
^various  actions  against  the  Turks,  and  obliged  Mahomet  II. 
"  S  the  Sge  of  B^grade  (1456.)  where  he  lost  above  twenty- 
fivVhousand  men.  and  was  himself  severely  wounded. 

The  Greek  Empire  was  gradually  approaching  its  downfall, 
under  the  feeble  administration  of  the^House  of  Paleologus  who 
had  occupied  the  throne  of  Constantinople  since  the  year  1261. 
The  same  vices  of  which  we  have  already  spoken,  the  grea 
nowero7the  patriarchs  and  the  monks,  the  rancour  of  theologies 
SisDutes,  the  fury  of  sectaries  and  schismatics,  and  the  inlernal 
Sens  ;«  to  whih  they  gave  rise,  aggravated  the  in-sfortunes 
ami  dlorders  of  the  state,  and  were  instrumental  m  hasten  ng 
on  its  final  destruction.     John  I.  and  his  successors,  the  last 
Emprors  of  Constantinople  being  reduced  to  th«  sad  „«cessKy 
of  oavine  tribute  to  the  Turks,  and  marching  on  raUitary  expe- 
ditfons  ft  Se  command  of  the  Sultans,  owed  the  preservation 
of  the  ;  shattered  and  declining  Empire,  for  some  time,  entirely 
to  hrrevVrses  of  fortune  which  had  befallen  the  Ottomans ;  and 
S  he  dfficulties  which  the  siege  of  their  capital  presented  to  a 
torbarous  nation  unacquainted  with  the  arts  of  blockade. 

The  DOwer  of  the  Qittoman  Turks  took  its  'tse  about  the  end 
of  The  Cnih  century.  A  Turkish  Etmr.  eaUed  Ouonj-n. 
nr  Osman  was  its  original  founder  m  Asia  Minor.  Me  was 
L  oS  nuSbir  of  tfose  Emirs,  who.  after  the  subversion  of 
Z  Seiiiians  of  Roum  or  Iconium.  by  the  MoguU,  shKed 


ciumt  vt. 


•nioiig  Uiem  the  apoila  of  their  laeient  muten.  A  pert  of 
Bithyakf  end  the  whole  country  lying  round  Mount  Olympus, 
fell  to  the  share  of  Ottoman,  who  afterwards  formed  an  alliance 
with  the  other  Emirs,  and  inraded  the  possessions  of  the  Greek 
Empire,  under  the  feeble  reign  of  the  Emperor  Andronicus  II. 
Prusa,  or  Bursa,  the  principal  city  of  Bithynia,  was  conquered 
by  Ottoman  (1327.)  He  and  his  successors  made  it  the  capital 
of  their  new  state,  which,  in  course  of  time,  gained  the  ascen- 
dency over  all  the  other  Turkish  sovereignties,  formed,  like  that 
of  Ottoman,  from  the  ruins  of  Iconium  and  the  Greek  Empire. 

Orchan,  the  son  and  successor  of  Ottoman,  instituted  the 
famous  Order  of  the  Janissaries,  to  which  in  a  great  measure 
the  Turks  owed  their  success.  He  took  from  the  Greeks  the 
cities  of  Nice  and  Nicomedia  in  Bithynia ;  and,  after  having 
subdued  most  of  the  Turkish  Emirs  in  Asia  Minor,  he  took  the 
title  of  Sultan  or  King,  as  well  as  that  of  Pacha,  which  is  eoui- 
valent  to  the  title  of  Emperor.  His  son  Soliman  crossed  the  Hel- 
lespont,  by  his  orders,  near  the  ruins  of  ancient  Troy,  and  took 
the  city  of  Gallipoli,  in  the  Thracian  Chersonesus  (1358.)  The 
conquest  of  this  place  opened  a  pas^sage  for  the  Turks  into  Eu- 
rope, when  Thrace  and  the  whole  of  Greece  was  soon  inundated 
by  these  new  invaders.  Amurath  I.,  the  son  and  successor  of 
Orchan,  made  himself  master  of  Adrianople  and  the  whole 
of  Thrace  (1360;)  he  next  attacked  Macedonia,  Servia  and 
Bulgaria,  and  appointed  the  RtstBeglerbeg,  or  Governor-general 
of  Romeiia.  Several  Turkish  princes  of  Asia  Minor  were 
obliged  to  acknowledge  his  authority  ;  he  made  himself  master 
of  Kiulaja,  the  metropolis  of  Phrygia,  which  afterwards  became 
the  capital  of  Anatolia,  and  the  residence  of  the  governor  of  that 
province  (1389.)  Amurath  was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Cassova, 
which  he  fousht  with  the  Despot  of  Servia,  assisted  by  his  nume- 
rous allies.  In  this  bloody  battle  the  Despot  himself  was  slain, 
and  both  sides  equally  claimed  the  victory.  &\)axet  I.,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Amurath,  put  an  end  to  all  the  Turkish  sovereignties 
which  itili  aubeisted  in  Asia  Minor.  He  completed  the  reduc- 
tion of  Bulgaria,  and  maintained  the  possession  of  iti|rr  the 
signal  victory  which  he  gained  at  Nicopolis  (1396)  over  Si^- 
mund.  King  of  Hungary.  The  Greek  Empire  woald  have  yield- 
ed to  Uie  persevering  efforts  of  that  prince,  who  bad  maintained, 
for  ten  yejrs,  the  siege  of  Constantinople,  had  he  not  baan  at- 
tacked, m  the  midst  of  these  enterprises,  by  the  fiunouaTimour, 
the  new  coiiqaeror  of  Asia. 

Timoar.ewBiDonly  called  Tuaerlane,  waa  one  of  thine  Mogul 
Bmin  iriio  had  divided  amongst  them  die  sovcnigntjr  of  Tnuia- 
oxkuw,  after  tlie  ntinetiM  of  the  Mogul  dynasty  of  Zagutai. 


i 


t. 

ient  masten.  A  part  of 
f  round  Mount  Olympus, 
"wards  formed  an  alliance 
i  possessions  of  the  Greek 

Emperor  Andronicus  II. 

Bithynia,  was  conquered 
lessors  made  it  the  capital 
if  time,  gained  the  ascen- 
reignties,  formed,  like  that 
I  and  the  Greek  Empire. 

Ottoman,  instituted  the 
rhich  in  a  great  measure 
ook  from  the  Greeks  the 
:hynia ;  and,  after  having 
n  Asia  Minor,  he  took  the 
t  of  Pacha,  which  is  equi- 

Soliman  crossed  the  Hel> 
of  ancient  Troy,  and  took 
/hersonesus  (13d8.)  The 
;e  for  the  Turks  into  Eu- 
reece  was  soon  inundated 
the  son  and  successor  of 
drianople  and  the  whole 

Macedonia,  Servia  and 
rbeg,  or  Governor-general 
ces  of  Asia  Minor  were 
;  he  made  himself  master 
which  aAcrwards  became 
ice  of  the  governor  of  that 
I  at  the  battle  of  Cassova, 
rvia,  assisted  by  his  numo'- 
Despot  himself  was  slain, 
tory.  Bajazet  I.,  the  sue- 
the  Turkish  sovereignties 

He  comjpleted  th«  reduc- 
B  possession  of  i^ly  the 
copolis  (1396)  over  Sigiii* 
Empire  woqla  have  yield- 
ince,  whtt  bad  maintained, 
lople,  had  he  not  basn  at- 
lea,  by  the  fiunous  Timoor. 

le,  was  one  of  those  Mogul 
I  Uie  so?  cieigntjr  of  Tmui« 
[ogul  dynasty  of  Zafutai. 


Loii<KiW?rCoJw«i«».    rol.l-f.90». 


hHllKriuniingtkeFcp^BBiia.    Tot  1-|>.  «15. 


'i  - 


mmm\  ■ 


'^t^.** 


.    4 


{•' 


L_ 


iium •mil) II' 


mioDV.    A.  ».  1300— 1483. 

TraBMxiMM  wm  the  theatre  of  hit  firrt  eiploita;  there  h« 
ttsttrped  Um  whole  power  of  the  Khan.,  <>' Emperora  of  Zm.!^ 
and  ^ed  the  capital  of  his  new  dominioni  at  *e  ci^rt 
Samareaad  (1389.y    Persia,  the  whole  of  Upper  Am,  Kipneh. 
and  Hindoiton,  were  vanquished  hy  him  in  succeswonj  whwe- 
ver  he  inarched,  he  renewed  the  same  scenes  of  horror,  WooJ- 
.hed,  and  carnage,  which  had  marked  the  footstep,  of  A« 
first  Mogul  conqueror*    Timour  at  length  •'"'c^f  JJf  fj; 
minions  of  Baj«2et  in  Anatolia  (1400.)     He  fought  a  bloody 
and  decisive  battle  near  Angora,  m  the  ancient  GaUogrecm, 
which  proved  fatal  to  the  Ottoman  Empire.     Bajozet  sustainea 
an  entire  defeat,  and  fell  himself  into  the  hands  of  the  co«p 
quexor.     All  Anatolia  was  then  conquered  and  piHaged  by  tlie 
Moguls,  and  there  Timour  fixed  his  winter  quarters.     Meantime 
he  treated  his  captive  Bajwet  with  kindness  and  generosity; 
and  the  anecdote  of  the  iron  cage,  in  which  he  is  said  to  hvn 
confined  his  prisoner,  merits  no  credit.     Sherefeddin  Ah,  wlw 
accompanied  Timour  in  his  expedition  against  Bajazet,  makes  bo 
mention  of  it;  on  the  contrary,  he  avers  that  Timour  consented 
to  leave  him  the  Empire,  and  that  he  granted  the  investiture  of 
it  to  him  and  two  of  his  sons.     Baiazet  did  not  long  s'^'vive  luji 
misfortune ;  he  died  of  an  attack  of  apoplexy  (1403,)  with  which 
he  was  struck  in  the  camp  of  Timour  m  Caramania. 

Timour,  a  short  time  aher,  formed  the  project  of  an  expedi- 
tion into  China;  but  he  died  on  the  route  in  1405.  at  the  agje 
of  sixty-nine.  His  vast  dominions  were  dismembered  after  bw 
death.  One  of  his  descendants,  named  Babour,  founded  a  pow- 
erful  Empire  in  India,  the  remains  of  which  are  still  preserved 
under  the  name  of  the  Empire  of  the  Great  Mogul.  The  inTj. 
sion  of  Timour  retarded  for  some  tune  the  progress  of  the  Turk- 
ish  Empire.  The  fatal  dissensions,  which  arose  among  the  sons 
of  Baiuet,  set  them  at  open  war  with  each  other.  At  length 
Amuiith  II.,  the  son  of  Mahomet  I.,  and  grandson  of  Bajazet, 
succeeded  in  putting  a  stop  to  these  dfvisions,  and  restored  the 
Empire  to  its  primitive  splendour.  He  deprived  the  GreAs  of 
all  tlie  places  which  still  remained  in  their  hands  on  the  Black 
Sea,  along  the  coast  of  Thrace,  in  Macedonia  and  ThessaJy. 
He  even  took,  by  assault,  the  wall  and  forts  which  they  had 
constructed  at  the  entrance  of  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  and  car- 
ried his  ravages  to  the  very  centre  of  the  Peloponnesus. 

The  two  heroes  of  the  Christians,  John  Hunni^es  and  Scan- 
derbeg,  arrested  the  promea.  of  the  Ottoman  Su  tan.  Tta 
fonnw!  who  was  Genera  of  the  Hun^ana.  boldly  repulsed 
the  Sultan  of  Servia,  whom  he  was  ambibous  to  conquer.  X  f 
other,  a  Greek  Prince*  who  posseased  one  of  the  petty  atatei  or 
VOL.  1.  18 


-vSM-" 


■f 


HI  eRArrti  vi. 

AHMnia  of  which  Crojt  w»i  the  c«pit»l,  waiited  with  weewji 
ilf^^ed  atwrks  of  the  Turk-.     Supported  by  a  •«n«U  km 

hi*  territory  was  surrounded,  he  twice  compelled  Amurainro 
ilKi^ege  of  Croia.  At  length  appeared  Mah-et  I..^he 
Hon  and  successor  of  Amurath,  (14fil.)  1  his  i  nnce,  wno  wm 
Tsedlo  1  Ottoman  thione  in  the  r"«'«'''  >*"  "l.^^'J-JSl 
Tonceired  the  design  of  achieving  the  conquest  «/  »J« Jj Jiek 
»««;«,    hv  the  takinff  of  Constantinople.     He  succeeaea  m 

•-  »i.:»K  apvpnil  of  his  nredesessors  had  failed,     ai  me  neuu 

entfre  liberty  of  conscience  to  the  Greeks  wno  mg 
to  settle  there ;  and  authorized  them  to  J'oc^eJ^"  J  ^  ^^e 
lion  of  a  new  patriarch,  whose  dignity  ne  *.""""u"",^^,„-j 
TnoJl.  and  grKleges  which  Je  atuiched  to  it.  He  -to  ed 
also  the  fortiUions  of  thecuy  and  by  way^^^^^  ^^^^^ 
airainst  the  armaments  of  the  Venetians  aim  «»         ,„,,,;[ 


,  TMiitwI  with  mee 

iported  by  a  •mail  Imt 

mountain!  wilii  wliieli 

ompellcd  Amuratli  to 

ared  Mahomet  II,,  tlie 

This  Prince,  who  wai 

tielh  year  of  his  age, 

onquest  of  the  Greeic 

lie.     He  succeeded  in 

itructed  this  enterprise, 

Id  failed.     At  the  head 

combatants,  supported 

B  that  capital,  and  com- 

The  besieged  having 

e  the  superior  force  of 

redoubled  eflforts  of  the 

•three  days.     The  city 

delirered  up  to  the  uii- 

Constantine,    surnamed 

ors,  perished  in  the  first 

great  and  opulent  city 

el,  on  entering  the  very 

ast  and  dismal  solitude. 

titants  to  this  city,  which 

npire,  he  guaranteed  an 

eeks  who  might  come 

to  proceed  to  the  elec* 

ity  ne  enhanced  by  the 

hed  to  it.     He  restored 

I,  by  way  of  precaution 

ians  and  other  western 

,0  dread,  he  constructed 

at  the  entrance  of  the 

of  Serria,  Bosnia,  Alba« 
ms  or  Morea,  as  well  as 
.  The  Greek  Empire  of 
r,  submitted  in  like  man* 
I  Darid  Commenus,  the 
e  Mahometans,  and  with 
relations.  Such  a  rapid 
rm  amoHK  the  powers  of 
b  Pope  Pius  n.  held  at 
il  association  among  the 
1.    A  crasade  was  pub* 


PBBioD  Ti.    A.  P.  14A3~-1648.  Mr 

by  his  orders,  and  !>•  was  on  the  point  of  Mttiag  out  i« 

l^artOB  at  the  head  of  this  ciucdition,  whea  bo  wu  auddeiilv  cot 
off  hy  death  at  Ancona  (1464,)  .vUere  he  had  appoinloa  Ihff 
general  ren<*.eivous  of  the  confed«ra(«  troops.  This  event,  mUt 
od  to  the  terror  which  the  arms  of  MahoiikJtt  i  'd  create4  amoi^ 
the  nations  of  the  We'«t,  disconcerted  the  pl«ris  of  the  Croa^ 
dors,  and  was  the  meauu  >)(  dissolving  (hoir  confedf^racy.  Tho 
Turkish  Empire  thue  becaoM'  firnoly  estaMi»hi)d  in  Europe,  and 
the  Tartars  of  the  Crimea  put  themselves  at  (fr(^ 
under  the  protection  of  the  Porte. 


CHAPTEIl   VII. 


PBRIOD  YI. 


From  the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  to  the  Peace 
of  Weitphalia.—A.  o.  1463—1648. 

Tub  revolutioii  which  happened  in  the  fiAeenth  century  eik- 
tirely  changed  the  face  of  Europe,  and  introduced  a  now  system 
of  politics.  This  revolution  was  not  achieved  by  any  combina- 
tions of  profound  policy,  nor  by  the  operation  of  that  physical 
force  which  generally  subverts  thrones  and  governments.  It 
was  the  result  of  those  progressive  changes  which  had  been 
produced  in  the  ideas  and  understandings  of  the  nations  of  Eu- 
rope, by  the  improvements  and  institutions  of  preceding  times ; 
as  well  as  by  the  invention  of  raper  and  printing,  of  gunpowder, 
and  the  mariner's  compass.  By  means  of  these,  the  empire  of 
letters  and  arts  was  ffreatly  extended,  and  various  salutary  im- 
provements made  in  tne  religion,  manners,  and  governments  of 
Europe.  The  people  by  degrees  shook  off  the  yoke  of  barba- 
rism, superstition,  and  fanaticism,  which  the  revolution  of  the 
fifth  century  had  imposed  on  them ;  and  from  that  time  the 
principal  States  of  Eairope  becran  to  acquire  the  strength,  and 
gradually  to  assume  the  form,  which  they  have  since  maintained. 

Several  extraordinary  events,  however,  coiupired  to  accelerate 
these  happy  changes.  The  Belles  Lettres  and  the  Fine  Arts 
shone  out  with  new  splendour,  after  the  downfall  of  the  Greek 
Empire.  The  celebrated  Petrarch,  and  his  disciples  Boccacio 
and  John  of  Ravenna,  were  the  first  that  made  the  Italians  ac- 
quainted with  ancient  literatare,  as  the  true  source  and  standard 
of  good  taste.  They  prepared  the  way  for  a  vast  number  of  tho 
Gncian  literati,  who,  to  escape  the  barbarity  of  the  Turks,  had 
iM  into  Italy,  where  they  opened  schools,  and  brought  the  tKMiij 


I 


0  OHATTBS  Till 

of  OiMk  literataie  into  cofuidenble  lepnte.  The  most  celelmted 
of  these  Greek  refugees  were,  Manuel  Chrysoloras,  Cardinal 
Bhssarion,  Theodore  Gaza,  George  of  Trehismd,  John  Atgym- 
pkihis,  and  Demetrius  Chalcondyles.  I^tected  by  the  family 
of  the  Medieis  at  Florence,  they  assisted  in  forming  those  fine 
gwiuses  which  arose  in  Italy  during  the  fifteenth  century,  such 
aa  Le<mard  Aretin,  the  two  Guerini,  Poggio  of  Florence,  Ange- 
lo  Politian,  and  many  others.  Academies,  or  Free  Societies, 
were  founded  at  Rmne  Naples,  Venice,  Milan,  Ferrara  and 
Florence,  for  the  encouragement  of  ancient  literature. 

From  Italy  the  study  of  the  ancient  arts  passed  to  the  other 
states  of  Europe.  They  soon  diffused  their  influence  over  every 
department  of  litertiture  and  science,  which  by  degreei^  assumed 
an  aspect  totally  new.  The  scholastic  system,  which  tiii  then 
had  been  in  vogue  in  the  pulpits  and  universities,  lost  its  credit, 
and  gave  place  to  a  more  renned  philosophy.  Men  learned  to 
diaenminate  the  vices  of  the  feudal  system,  and  sought  out  the 
means  of  correcting  them.  The  sources  of  disorder  and  anarchy 
were  gradually  dried  up,  and  gave  place  to  better  organized 

Svemments.  Painting,  sculpture,  and  the  arts  in  general, 
tared  from  the  Gothic  rust  which  they  had  contracted  during 
the  barbarous  ages,  and  finished  after  the  models  of  the  ancients, 
tikttKie  forth  with  renewed  lustre.  Navigation,  under  the  direc- 
tum of  the  compass,  reached  a  degree  of  perfection  which  at- 
tracted universal  attention ;  and  while  the  ancients  merely  coasted 
akmg  their  own  shores  in  the  pursuit  of  commerce  or  maritime 
eoqtloits,  we  find  the  modern  Europeans  extending  their  naviga- 
tion  over  the  whole  globe,  and  bringing  both  hemispheres  under 
dMur  dominion. 

America,  unknown  to  the  ancients,  was  discovered  during 
dds  period ;  as  well  as  the  route  to  India  and  die  East,  round 
thie  Continent  of  Africa.  The  notion  of  a  fourth  quarter  of  the 
world  had  long  been  prevalei.t  among  the  ancients.  We  all 
xwoUect  the  Atlantis  of  Plato,  which,  according  to  the  assertion 
of  diat  philosopher,  wa:.  larger  than  Asia  and  Africa;  and  we 
laiow  that  iElian  the  historian,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Adrian, 
a&med  in  like  manner  the  existence  of  a  fourth  continent  of 
inunense  extent.  This  opinion  had  got  so  much  into  fashion, 
dining  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  of  the  Christian  ere,  that 
LsfCtantiusand  St.  Augustine  thought  themselves  bound  in  duty 
to  omnbat  it  in  Uieir  writings ;  inveigling  against  the  antipodes 
ly  reasons  and  arguments,  the  frivolousness  of  which  ia  now 
very  generally  admitted ;  but,  whatever  were-the  notions  which 
die  ancients  might  have  entertained  as  to  a  fourth  quarter  of  the 
ifiike,  it  is  Very  ccfrtain  diat  they  knew  it  only  from  conjectura, 
•ad  that  their  navigatjjipii  never  extended  so  Cur. 


ite.  The  most  Mlelmted 

I  Chrysoloras,  Cardinal 

ibizond,  John  Argyro- 

Protected  by  the  family 

id  in  forming  thoae  fine 

le  fifteenth  century,  such 

gio  of  Florence,  Ange- 

'es,  or  Free  Societies, 

;ce,  Milan,  Ferrara  and 

ient  literature. 

It  arts  passed  to  the  other 

their  influence  over  every 

hich  by  degreeik  assumed 

c  system,  which  till  then 

■niversities,  lost  its  credit, 

Qsophy.     Men  learned  to 

rstem,  and  sought  out  the 

!8  of  disorder  and  anarchy 

place  to  better  organized 

and  the  arts  in  general, 

ley  had  contracted  during 

he  models  of  the  ancients, 

ivigation,  under  the  direc- 

ee  of  perfection  which  at- 

the  ancients  merely  coasted 

t  of  commerce  or  maritime 

ms  extending  their  naviga> 

og  both  hemispheres  under 

tts,  was  discovered  during 
India  and  die  East,  round 
fi  of  a  fourth  quarter  of  the 
jng  the  ancients.  We  all 
,  according  to  the  assertion 
Asia  and  Africa ;  and  we 
ived  in  the  reign  of  Adrian, 
ice  of  a  fourth  continent  of 
i  got  so  much  into  fashion, 
B  of  the  Christian  era,  that 
It  Uiemselves  bound  in  duty 
l^ing  against  the  antipodes 
»lou8iies8  of  which  is  now 
▼er  were-the  notions  which 
u  to  afenrth  quarter  of  the 
ew  it  only  firom  conjector*, 
ndedsonr. 


FBUOD  TL     14fi&<^1648. 

The  honour  of  this  important  diacovery  belongs  to  modem 
navigators,  more  especially  to  Christopher  OoluouNU,  a  native 
of  Genoa.  From  tm  Imowledse  which  this  eelebiated  man  had 
aequired  in  the  sciences  of  Navigation,  Astronomy,  and  Oeo- 
gnphy,  he  was  persuaded  that  there  must  be  another  liemisphen 
tying  to  the  westward,  and  unknown  to  Eiuopaans,  but  neces- 
sary to  the  equilibrium  of  the  globe.  These  eoiyeetures  he 
communicated  to  several  of  the  courts  of  Europe,  vAo  dl  re- 
garded him  as  a  visionary ;  and  it  was  not  till  lAer  many  soli- 
citations, that  Isabella,  Queen  of  Castile,  granted  him  three 
vessels,  with  which  he  set  sail  in  quest  of  Uie  new  continent, 
3d  August  1492.  After  a  perilous  navigation  of  some  m«>nths, 
he  reached  the  Island  Guanahani  or  Cat  Island,  one  of  the  Lu- 
cayos  or  Bahamas,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  St.  Salvador. 
This  discovery  was  followed  soon  after  by  that  of  the  blands  of 
St.  Domingo  and  Cuba;  and  in  the  second  and  third  voyagve 
which  that  navigator  undertook  to  America  (1493-1496,)  he  dis- 
covered the  mainland  or  continent  of  the  New  World,  especially 
the  .Miast  of  Paria,  as  far  as  the  point  of  Araya,  making  part  of 
theprovince  known  at  present  by  the  name  of  Cumana. 

The  track  of  the  Genoese  narlgator  was  followed  by  a  Flo- 
rentine merchant,  named  Amerigo  Vesputio.  Under  the  con- 
duct of  a  Spanish  captain,  called  Alphonso  de  Ojeda,  he  made 
several  voyages  to  the  New  World  after  the  year  1497.  Diflle- 
rent  coasts  of  the  continent  of  South  America  were  visited  l^ 
him ;  and  in  the  maps  of  his  discoveries  which  he  drew  up,  he 
usurped  a  glory  which  did  not  belong  to  him,  by  applying  his 
own  name  to  the  new  continent ;  which  it  has  since  retained. 

The  Spaniards  conquered  the  islands  and  a  great  part  of  the 
continent  o^'  America ;  extending  their  victories  along  with  their 
discoveries.  Stimulated  by  the  Uiirst  of  gold,  whidi  Uie  New 
World  offered  to  them  in  abundance,  they  coounitted  crimes  and 
barbarities  which  make  humanity  shudder.  Millions  of  the 
unfortunate  natt  es  were  either  massacred  or  buried  in  the  sea, 
in  spite  of  the  efforts  which  the  Spanish  Bishop,  Bartholomew 
de  Las  Casas,  vainly  made  to  arrest  the  fuiy  of  his  country- 
men. *  In  the  year  after  the  first  discovery  of  Columbus,  Fer- 
dinand the  Catholic,  King  of  Spain,  obtained  a  bull  from  Pope 
Alexander  VI.,  by  which  that  Pontiff  made  him  a  gift  of  all  the 
countries  discovered,  or  to  be  discovered,  towards  the  west  and 
the  south ;  drawing  an  imaginary  line  from  one  pole  to  the  other, 
at  the  distance  of  a  hundred  leagues  westward  of  Cape  Verd 
and  the  Azores.  This  decision  having  given  oflence  to  the  King 
of  Portugal,  who  deemed  it  prejudicial  to  his  discoveries  in  th* 
East,  an  accommodation  was  contrived  between  the  two  courts, 

18* 


.&4> 


g|g  oBAFtu  vn. 

iB.Tiitae  of  which  the  same  Pope,  by  another  BuM  d*®*.)  «^ 

SJSdUie  lini  in  question  farther  west,  to  the  distance  of  four 

KSid  Md  seventy  leagues ;  so  that  aU  the  cogntnes  Ij^  to 

STSertlwrd  of  this  line  should  belong  to  Ae  King  of  Spain, 

i^lTthMewhich  might  be  discovered  to  the  eastward,  should 

SliSTp^sion  oTthe  King  of  Portugd,'  .It  -«  on  J" 

nntmded  S^at  the  Spaniard  founded  their  right  to  demand 

SKSssk^  of  the  AiEiican  nations  to  the  Spanish  Crown. 

Ke!?^cipal  conquests  in  the  New  World  commence  from 

Ae  wiK  the  Emjetor  Charles  V.    It  was  m  his  name  that 

pTrdSSd  CMtes,  WU  a  mere  handful  of  troops,  overthrew  the 

^SXpi^TCxico  (1621;)  the  last  f«^f-^ors  of  jh^, 

B^ntfiZa  and  Gatimorin.  were  slain,  and  a  P'odigious  num- 

W^f  SoMericans  put  to  the  sword.    The  conqueror  of  Peru 

vl  Fmicis  pSro^l633.)    He  entered  the  country,  at   he 

d  orSSmfn  at  thl  very'time  -1»-  Atabdipa  or  Ata^^^^^ 

SS.    The  character  of  these  <»l««i«  ^f*'^'^  f™"?  ^^^ia 
^S      Thev  applied  themselves,  in  consequence,  to  vhe 

SS-  A  wl«hTd  to  reserve  to  themselves  exclusively  the  pro- 
Cof  thymines.  Commerce,  which  at  first  had  been  confined 
■n  oi  «iB  ""!«=  GoviUp  fell  into  the  hands  of  a  small 

EpSo^^d  iropolitan  Sees  Missior.  Cjnven  s  a^^ 
•i-UipT  The  Inauisition  was  also  introduced;  but  the  nierar 
S^Xh  w^  founded  there,  instead  of  augmcntmg  the  jy^wer 
rfUPopel^emained  in  astato  of  complete  dependence  upon 

*VS1«SJ  of  Bn«a  belongs  to  the  Portuguese.     Alvares 


other  BuU  (1424,)  n- 

to  the  distance  of  four 

the  countries  lying  to 

to  the  King  of  Spain, 

|to  the  eastwturd,  should 

lugal. '    It  was  on  this 

~  their  rig^t  to  demand 

to  the  Spanish  Crown. 

^orld  conunence  from 

t  was  in  his  name  that 

f  troops,  overthrew  the 

ist  Emperors  of  which, 

and  a  prodigious  num* 

The  conqueror  of  Peru 

red  the  country,  at  the 

Atabalipa  or  Atahualpa 

OTereign  of  Peru.  That 

ibdued  bv  the  Spaniards. 

tnies  and  csfablishments 

d  subjected  to  their  do* 

ies  differed  from  that  of 

e  had  founded  in  India, 

'reach,  in  different  parts 

by  no  means  a  commer- 

were  the  object  of  their 

in  consequence,  to  ihe 

jrroes  to  labour  in  them, 

rocess  of  time,  when  the 

[  these  countries,  and  the 

it,  the  Spanish  colonists 

griculture,  and  in  raising 

ce.     What  we  have  now 

restrictions  which  were 

by  the  Spanish  govem- 

;lves  exclusively  the  pro- 

it  first  had  been  confined 

nto  the  hands  of  a  small 

lusion  of  foreigners.     As 

I,  they  were  planted  with 

ions.  Convents,  and  Uni- 

roduced ;  but  the  hierar- 

of  au^ucnting  the  power 

mplete  dependence  upon 

lie  Portuguese.     Alvares 


PBUOD  Ti.    A.  0. 1403-~1648.  911 

Oabnl,  the  commander  of  their  fleet,  idiiie  on  his  route  to  India, 
WW  driven,  ly  contrary  winds,  on  the  coaat  of  Brasil  (IfiOO,)  and 
todc  possesnon  of  the  country  in  name  of  the  Kins  of  For* 
togal.    This  colony,  in  the  course  of  time,  hec<une  highly  im- 

Strtant,  from  the  rich  mines  of  diamonds  and  g(A\  which  wero 
scovered  there. 

The  Spaniards  and  Portugr'^de  were  at  first  the  only  masters 
of  Amenca ;  but  in  a  short  time,  establishments  were  formed 
there  by  some  of  the  other  maritime  nations  of  Europe.  The 
first  English  colony  was  that  of  Virginia,  which  was  conducted 
to  North  America  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  (1684,)  but  it  did  not 
gain  a  penranent  settlement  till  the  reign  of  James  I.  This  was 
aflerwards  followed  by  several  other  colonies  which  had  settled 
in  that  pait  of  the  American  continent,  on  account  of  the  perse- 
cution carried  on  by  the  Stuart  Kinin  against  the  non-conform* 
ists.  The  first  settlements  of  the  En^ish  in  the  Antilles,  were 
thoee  which  they  formed  in  the  Islands  of  Barbadoes  and  St. 
Christopher  (1629 ;)  to  these  they  added  the  Island  of  Jamaica, 
which  they  took  from  the  Spaniards  (1655.)  The  date  of  the 
French  establishments  in  Canada,  is  as  old  as  the  teigns  of 
Francis  I.  and  Henry  IV.,  in  the  years  1534  and  1604.  The 
city  of  Quebec  was  founded  in  1^06.  It  was  at  a  later  period 
when  the  French  established  themselves  in  the  Antilles.  Th< 
origin  of  their  colonies  in  Martinique  and  Gaudaloupe,  is  gene- 
rally referred  to  the  year  1635.  They  gained  a  footing  in  St. 
Domingo  as  early  as  1630,  but  the  flourishing  state  of  that  re- 
markable colony  did  not  begin^roperly  speaking,  till  1722.  All 
the  establishments  which  the  ETnglish  and  French  had  formed  in 
America,  were  purely  agricultund ;  and  in  this  respect  they  were 
distinguished  from  the  Spanish  colonies. 

The  discovery  of  a  passage  by  sea  to  the  East  Indies  round 
Africa,  belongs  also  to  the  Portuguese.  It  forms  one  of  those 
great  events  which  of\en  take  their  first  impulse  from  very  slen- 
der causes.  John  I.  sumamed  the  Bastard,  the  new  founder  of 
the  kingdom  of  Portugal,  being  desirous  of  affording  to  his  sons 
an  opportunity  of  signalizing  themselves,  and  earning  the  honour 
of  knighthood,  planned  an  expedition  against  the  Moors  in  Africa; 
he  equipped  a  fleet,  with  which  he  landed  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Ceuta  (1415,)  of  which  he  soon  made  himself  master,  and 
created  his  sons  knights  in  the  grand  mosque  of  that  city.  After 
this  event,  the  Portuguese  began  to  have  a  taste  for  navigation 
and  maritime  discoveries.  In  this  they  were  encouraged  by  the 
Infant  Don  Henry,  Duke  of  Viseu,  and  one  of  the  sons  of  King 
John,  who  had  particularly  distinguished  himself  in  the  expedi- 
tion of  which  we  have  just  spoken.     That  prince,  who  was  well 


tit 


aumnvn. 


.IdllMl  in  maUieiMtics  Mid  the  .rt  of  n»vig»tu».jwtobhdwd  Us 
SiSaTcapJst  Vincent,  on  *• '^^^  "S"^tu  «ii 
^  There  t  ordered  veweU  to  be  conetnicted  at  his  own 
SSIiU  iad  «^tSm  to  reconnoitre  the  oout.  of  Afin«.  Fiom 
ffim;  4e  CuguL  discovered,  in  tucce««on,  tlw  W««i-  »f 
^etai  Km^  Canaries  (1424.)  the  A«»re.  (1431.)  and 

iX  w^  negotiated  between  the  two  kuig«toin«.  m  virtue  of 

JouWed  t?^t>ch¥  called  the  S^ng^C^^^^^^ 
which  King  John  changed  into  that oj^^^  "^^^^  PortuS 
after  twelve  years  of  toils,  Vasco  di  Gama,  anotner  '^o"*^*^ 
!5mi™I  W  the  fflory  of  carrying  his  natiomd  flag  as  fax  as 
;Sr  'He  landed'rthe  Po^/calicut  (1^  on  ^e  M^ 
Ubar  coast,  in  the  third  year  of  the  reign  of  En««J?««';  J^^J^^ 

0"di  i^ZwdSitlon  of  the  power  of  the  Poi^- 
Z2  ii  India.  Francis  Almeida  defeated  Ae  flee  of  Ae 
Mameluke  Sultan  of  Egypt,  in  coniunction  with  that  ol  me 
MameiuKe  ouiiwi         •'Vlfonzo  Albuquerque  conquered  Goa 

such  abundance,  as  to  make  them  regarded  as  articles  oi  aoeo 


TiBioo  ru    A.V.  14S3— 1648. 


918 


igttioD,  estaUishfld  kit 

wtam  axtremitv  of  Al> 

Ictmstnicted  at  nis  own 

ooutsof  Afiricft.  From 

1,  the  lalandi  of 

le  Asoraa  (1431,)  and 

id  coloniea;  and,  ad- 

■hores  of  Africa,  they 

•ts  of  Ouinea  and  Ni- 

iwly  diflcorered,  were 

iral  of  the  Popes.  The 

)d  by  the  Spaniards,  a 

kingdoms,  in  virtue  of 

Spain  (1481.) 

lat  the  Portuguese  ex* 

most  southerly  point  of 

iral,  was  the  first  who 

Stormy  Cape ;  a  name 

3ood  mpe.    At  length, 

ma,  anomer  Portuguese 

I  national  flag  as  far  as 

icut  (1498,)  on  the  Ma* 

I  of  Emmanuel.  Several 

,  such  as  Almeida,  Albu* 

tro,  following  the  tract  of 

the  power  of  the  Portu- 

efeated  the  fleet  of  the 

inction  with  that  of  the 

iquerque  conquered  Goa 

e  Portuguese  settlements 

ame  time,  the  Portuguese 

Islands,  with  some  oppo- 

ithony  Silveira  signalized 

L588.)     He  repuked  the 

[iman  the  Great  had  sent 

i  King  of  Cambay  having 

:ewi8e  a  total  deieat  from 

16  whole  kingdom  of  Diu. 

kingdoms  in  India,  and 

ature  and  the  industry  of 

ose  articles  of  commerce 

come  an  object  of  luxury 

ity  of  the  Venetians  had 

tf  the  world  with  them  in 

arded  as  articles  of  abso- 


lute neeetdty.  This  circumstance  was  the  reason  why  the  Por? 
toguese  never  formed  any  other  than  mercantile  establishments 
in  India,  which  they  nected  on  the  coasts,  without  extending 
them  into  the  interior.  The  working  of  the  mines,  and  the  cares 
of  agriculture,  were  abandoned  entirely  to  the  natives. 

This  era  produced  a  total  change  in  tne  commerce  of  the  East. 
Formerly  tne  Venetians  were  Uie  people  that  carried  on  the 
principal  traffic  to  India.  The  Jewish  or  Mahometan  merchants 
purchased  at  Goa,  Calicut,  and  Cochin,  those  spiceries  and  other 
productions  of  the  East,  which  they  imported  mto  Syria  by  the 
Persian  Gulf,  and  into  Egypt  by  the  Red  Sea.  They  were  then 
conveyed  by  a  laborious  ana  expensive  land-carriage,  either  to 
the  port  of  Alexandria,  or  that  of  Bairout  in  Syria.  ThiUier 
the  Venetians  repaired  in  quest  of  the  luxuries  of  India ;  they 
fixed  their  price,  and  distributed  them  over  all  Europe.  This 
commerce  proved  a  source  of  vast  wealth  to  these  republicans : 
it  furnished  them  with  the  means  of  maintaining  a  formida- 
ble marine,  and  of  verj'  often  dictating  the  law  to  the  other 
European  powers ;  but  after  the  discovery  of  the  new  passase 
round  the  (Jape,  and  the  conquests  of  the  Portuguese  in  India, 
the  Venetians  saw  themselves  compelled  to  abandon  a  trafiSc  in 
which  they  could  not  compete  with  the  Portuguese.  This  was 
a  terrible  blow  to  that  republic,  and  the  principal  cause  of  its 
downfall.  The  Portuguese,  however,  did  not  profit  by  this  ex« 
elusive  commerce  as  they  might  have  done.  They  did  not,  like 
other  nations,  constitute  Companies,  with  exclusive  commercial 
privileges ;  they  carried  it  on  by  means  of  fleets,  which  the  go- 
vemment  regularly  despatched  at  fixed  periods.  In  this  manner, 
the  commodities  of  the  East  were  imported  to  Lisbon ;  but  the. 
indolence  of  the  native  merchants  left  to  other  nations  the  care 
of  distributing  them  throuf^h  the  markets  of  Europe.  The  Dutch 
were  the  people  that  profited  most  by  this  branch  of  industry ; 
they  cultivated  it  with  so  mnch  success,  and  under  such  favour- 
able circumstances,  that  they  ai  length  succeeded  in  excluding 
the  Portuguese  themselves  from  this  lucrative  traffic,  by  dis- 
possessing them  of  their  colonies  in  the  East. 

If  the  events  which  we  have  now  briefly  detailed  proved  fatal 
to  the  Venetians,  and  afflicting  to  humanity,  by  the  wars  and 
misfortunes  which  they  occasioned,  it  is  nevertheless  certain, 
that  commerce  and  navigation  gained  prodigiously  by  these  new 
discoveries.  The  Portuguese,  after  having  maintained  for  some 
time  the  exclusive  possession  of  the  navigation  and  trade  of  the 
East,  found  afterwards  powerftil  competitors  in  the  Spaniards, 
the  Dutch,  English,  French,  and  Duies,  who  all  established 
mercantile  connexions  both  in  India  and  America.     Hence  ia« 


tSA 


aunnYu. 


immMmUe  ■ouices  of  wedth  we»  opened  to  *f»*»»jy  •{  *f 
Bwopeans ;  and  their  commerce,  formerir  hmite*  to  the  Medi- 
tlm^nT the  Bdtk,  and  the  Northern  Smb,  aad  eontoed  to  a 
hw  cities  in  Italy,  Flandera,  and  Germany,  **•  now,  Iw  means 
rftheir  colonies^in  Africa,  and  the  fast  and  West  l«J»s,  cn- 
twded  to  aU  parts  of  the  globe.*  The  »nterconri«  of  the  Por- 
toguese  with^hina  was  as  early  as  the  year  16".  •"J.^* 
jS«n  it  began  in  1S42.  Ferdinand  MaaeHan  undertook  the 
firrt  voyagi  round  the  world  (1619,)  and  his  exwnple  found 
afterwd-d^a  number  of  imitators.  »  By  degrees  the  maritime 
DOwer  of  Europe  assumed  a  formidable  aspect ;  arts  and  manu- 
^tures  were  multipUed ;  and  states,  formeriy  poor,  became  nch 
and  flourishing.  Kingdoms  at  length  found  in  their  commerce, 
resources  for  augmentfng  their  strength  and  their  influence,  and 
carrying  into  execution  their  projects  of  aggrandizement  and 

*°?Eng  the  causes  of  this  revolution  which  took  place  in 
commerce,  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  account  a  discovery  ap- 
parently of  trivial  importance,  but  which  cxereised  a  most  ex- 
traordinary influence  over  the  civilization  of  Europe,  viz.  that 
of  horse-pbsts  for  the  conveyance  of  letters.   Before  the  sixteenth 
century,  the  communications  between  distant  countries  were 
few  and  difficult.    Messengers,  travelling  on  short  joumeys,  on 
foot  or  on  horseback,  were  their  only  couriers.     About  the  be- 
ginning of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  during  the  reigri  of 
Maximilian  I.,  an  ItaUan  gentleman  of  the  name  of  Francis  de 
la  Tour  et  Taxis,  established  the  first  posts  in  the  Low  Coun- 
tries.    Their  object  at  first  was  merely  for  the  conveyance  of 
letters  bv  posts  or  post,  for  which  he  provided  regular  relays. 
Bv  and  W,  for  the  sake  of  despatch,  the  use  of  horses  was  m- 
trJduced,  placed  at  certain  distances.    From  the  Low  Countnes 
this  system  found  its  way  into  Germany,  where  its   profits 
were  secured  to  the  family  of  Taxis  by  impernl  grants ;  and 
from  thence  it  spread  over  every  civilized  country  in  the  world.] 
A  revolution  not  less  important,  is  that  which  took  place  in  re- 
Ugion  about  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.    The  abuses 
wTiich  disgraced  the  court  of  Rome,  the  excess  of  the  power,  and 
the  depravity  of  the  morals  of  the  clergy,  had  «cited  a  veryjge- 
neral  aisconlent.  A  reformation  had  for  a  long  time  *««»  deern^ 
necessary,  but  there  was  a  diflerence  of  opinion  as  to  Je  me- 
thod  of  effecting  it.    The  common  notion  was,  Aat  thu.  task 
.»uld  be  legaUy  accomplished  only  by  General  Councils^  »- 
TokedundeVSeauAorityofthe^opes.     *  ^J**  J-y^J^^J 
to  perceive  the  inefficacy  of  any  remedy  left  at  Ae  "»PO»"  •* 
tboM  very  persons  from  whom  the  evU  proceeded ;  and  the  nn- 


to  dw  minstrj  of  the 
)riy  Bmited  to  the  ModK- 
£feM,  kad  eonined  to  a 
ly.  WM  B0W,  hv  means 
aud  West  Inoies,  en* 
intereoane  of  the  Per- 
le  year  1517,  and  with 
[asellan  undertook  the 
[and  his  example  found 
ly  degrees  the  maritime 
aspect ;  arts  and  manu> 
rmerly  poor,  became  rich 
found  in  their  commerce, 
1  and  their  influence,  and 
of  aggrandizement  and 

ion  which  took  place  in 

account  a  discovery  ap- 

lich  exercised  a  most  ex* 

tion  of  Europe,  viz.  that 

ers.    Before  the  sixteenth 

distant  countries  were 

ing  on  short  joumejrs,  on 

couriers.     About  the  be< 

and  during  the  reign  of 

the  name  of  Francis  de 

posts  in  the  Low  Coun* 

ly  for  the  conveyance  of 

provided  regular  relays. 

the  use  of  horses  was  m- 

From  the  Low  Countries 

many,  where  its   profits 

by  imperial  gmnts;  and 

zed  country  in  the  world.] 

Iiat  which  took  place  in  re- 

inth  century.    The  abuses 

e  excess  of  the  power,  and 

gy,  had  excited  a  very  ge- 

r  a  long  time  been  deemed 

of  opinion  as  to  the  me* 

otion  was,  that  this  task 

T  General  Councils,  '  oni 

s.    It  was  easy,  however, 

edy  left  at  the  disposal  of 

il  proceeded ;  and  Ui«  im< 


nsioD  VI.    A.  0. 1453—1646. 


fM 


Mieoesaful  results  of  the  Councils  of  Constance  and  Basle,  had 
taught  the  people,  that,  in  order  to  obtain  redress  for  the  abuses 
of  ndiich  they  complained,  it  was  necessary  to  have  recourse  to 
some  other  scheme  than  that  of  General  Councils.  This  scheme 
vras  attempted  by  the  Reformers  of  the  sixteenth  century,  who 
were  persuaded,  that,  in  order  to  restrain  the  exorbitant  power 
of  the  clergy,  they  ought  to  reject  the  infallibility  of  the  Pope, 
as  well  as  that  of  General  Councils ;  admitting  no  other  autho* 
rity  in  ecclesiastical  matters,  than  that  of  the  sacred  scriptures, 
interpreted  by  the  lights  of  reason  and  sound  criticism. 

The  immediate  and  incidental  cause  of  this  change  in  reli* 
gion,  was  the  enormous  abuse  of  indulgences.  Pope  Leo  X., 
who  was  of  the  family  of  the  Medicis,  and  well  known  for  his 
extensive  patronage  of  literature  and  the  fine  arts,  having  ex- 
hausted the  treasury  of  the  church  by  his  luxAtry  and  his  mu- 
nificence, had  recourse  to  the  expedient  of  indulgences,  which 
several  of  his  predecessors  had  already  adopted  as  a  means  of 
recruiting  their  finances.  The  ostensible  reason  was,  the  ba- 
silica of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  the  completion  of  which  was 
equally  interesting  to  the  whole  of  Christendom.  Offices  for 
the  sale  of  indulgences  were  established  in  all  the  different 
states  of  Europe.  The  purchasers  of  these  indulgences  ob- 
tained absolution  of  their  sins,  and  exemption  from  the  pains  of 
purgatory  after  death.  The  excesses  committed  by  the  emis- 
saries who  had  the  charge  of  those  indulgences,  and  the  scan- 
dalous means  which  they  practised  to  extort  money,  brought  on 
the  schism  to  which  Ave  are  about  to  advert. 

Two  theologians,  Martin  Ltither,  and  Ulric  Zuingle,  opposed 
these  indulgences,  and  inveighed  against  them  in  their  sermons 
and  their  writings  ;  the  former  at  Wittemberg  in  Saxony  ;  the 
other,  first  at  Einsiedeln,  and  aftenvards  at  Zurich,  in  Switzer- 
land. Leo  X.  at  first  held  these  adversaries  in  contempt.  He 
did  not  attempt  to  allay  the  storm,  until  the  minds  of  men,  ex- 
asperated by  the  heat  of  dispute,  were  no  longer  disposed  to 
listen  to  the  voice  of  calmness  and  conciliation.  The  means 
which  he  subsequently  tried  to  induce  Luther  to  retract  having 
proved  abortive,  he  issued  a  thundering  Bull  arainst  him  (1620,) 
which,  so  far  from  abating  the  courage  of  the  Reformer,  tended, 
on  the  contrary,  to  embolden  him  stiU  more.  He  publicly  burnt 
the  Pope's  Bull,  together  with  the  Canon  Law,  at  Wittemberg 
(10th  December,)  in  presence  of  a  vast  concourse  of  doctors 
and  students  firom  di£brent  nations,  whom  he  had  assembled  for 
the  purpose.  From  that  moment  Luther  and  Zuingle  never 
ceased  to  preach  against  the  abuses  of  the  indulgences.  They 
eonqiletely  undermined  this  sjrstem  of  abominatimi,  and  eren 


11« 


eSAPTtm  vn. 


.«*mVm1  rmAmu  other  dogma,  and  inatitutioM  of  Ae  RoimA 
SSh  aS^JmoSMtic^.  the  celibacy  of  »te  pneaU.  A. 
S^LTofSe  Pope  and  thee«:le.i«tc^^^^^^^  Th«- 
twrcelebUd  men^  who  ^^'f  fo  lo^r^  C  people, 
opinions,  soon  •^S^^^fiV;"!^  a  yoke  which  had  been  so  op- 
long  ago  P^^PII^^d  to  "hake  ofl  ^"J^f  ^^j  the  new 
presaive,  applauded  the  j««    *•'  if*  J^,    ^g^ns  of  the  press, 

of  Zningle.     He  was  a  native  oi  i    y  compelled  to  eave 

decrees  ot  the  Del  of  SPir"*'^?''  "Sh  ,he  ra.«».  »">» 
mie  my  innovation,  in  fig.™.  «'  'V^'^erf  Luthenu.. 

fhT/;r ntd^S-I^tStT^^  fntou.  Die. 
of  Augsburg,  held  in  1530.  revolted  from  the 

In  this  manner  o  |reat  part  o^^^^P^^^^^  ^i^^er  the  doc- 
Pope  and  the  Romish  Church,  ana  e"r™^,  .  r^^  h^lf  ol 
TriAes  of  Luther,  or  those  of  Z»J?«»;  ^^^^^  and  Livonia, 
Germany,  Denmark.  Norway,  Sweden^^^^^  ^^^^^^^^ 

adopted  the  Confession  "^  ;^X  S'<^^l^*^"°f  Switzerland, 
the  United  Provinces,  and  »^;j;"Pj£of  Zuingle  and 
declared  themselves  m  favour  of  the  opmmnsoi  »        .^ 

S"^^^^"  J^rr:V^Sw"ni",tht^^^^ 

France,  Hungary,  ^^^^l^''''^^^^^  ^.^\„  the  Church;  it  in- 


utution*  of  the  Romidi 
EbacT  of  the  prieati,  the 
Mical  hierarchy.  Theee 
he  greater  pert  of  their 
ITollowers.  The  people, 
which  had  been  so  op- 
leformers;  and  the  new 
by  means  of  the  press, 
ighout  a  great  part  of 

nearly  in  the  footsteps 
^in  Picardy,  and  began  to 

Being  compelled  to  leave 

withdrew  to  Switzerland 
urg,  where  he  was  nomi- 
His  erudition  and  his 
d  gave  the  name  of  Cal* 
called  Zuinglians.  The 
>r  Calvanists  in  Germany, 
in  appellation  of  Protest- 
;h  they  took  against  the 

which  forbade  them  to 
0  abolish  the  mass,  until 

The  name  of  Lutherans 
tose  who  adhered  to  the 
Confession  of  Faith  which 
ies  v.,  at  the  famous  Diet 

Surope  revolted  from  the 
embraced  either  the  doc- 
and  Calvin.  The  half  of 
len,  Prussia,  and  Livonia, 
:  while  England,  Scotland, 
cipal  part  of  Switzerland, 
e  opinions  of  Zuingle  and 
likewise  great  progress  in 
lemia,  Silesia,  and  Poland, 
merely  the  Church ;  it  in- 
le  form  of  government,  in 
le  same  men  who  believed 
es  and  imperfections  in  re- 
abasea  with  the  same  free* 
princes  took  advantage  of 
own  power  and  authority. 
Chunh  and  of  the  leligion 


nftioD  ▼!.    A.  B.  1453—1648. 


flT 


of  their  country,  they  shook  off  the  fetters  of  priMtly  influence ; 
while  the  clergy  ceased  to  form  a  counteracting  or  controUinff 
power  in  the  State.  The  freedom  of  opinion  which  characterina 
the  Protestant  &ith,  awoke  the  human  mind  from  its  intellectml 
lethargy,  inftwed  new  energy  into  it,  and  thus  contributed  to  the 
progress  of  civilization  and  science  in  Europe.  Even  the  systems 
of  public  instruction  underwent  a  considerable  change.  The 
schools  were  reformed,  and  rendered  more  perfect.  A  multitude 
of  new  seminaries  of  education,  academies,  and  universitieB, 
were  founded  in  all  the  Protestant  States.  This  revolution, 
however,  was  not  accomplished  without  great  and  various  calai||i- 
ties.  A  hierarchy,  such  as  that  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  mip« 
ported  by  all  that  was  dignified  and  venerable,  could  not  be 
attacked,  or  shaken  to  its  foundation,  without  involving  Europe 
in  the  convulsion.  Hence  we  find  that  wars  and  factions  arose 
in  Germany,  France,  the  Low  Countries,  Switzerland,  Hungary, 
and  Poland.  The  march  of  reformation  wras  every  where  stain- 
ed with  blood. 

The  means  that  were  employed  to  bring  the  quarrels  of  the 
Church  to  an  amicable  conclusion,  tended  rather  to  exasperate 
than  allay  the  mischief;  and  if  the  conferences  among  the  clergy 
of  diflferent  persuasions  failed,  it  was  not  to  be  expected  that  a 
better  agreement,  or  a  union  of  parties,  could  be  founded  on  the 
basis  of  a  General  Council.  The  Protestants  demanded  an  un- 
controlled liberty  for  the  Council.  They  wished  it  to  be  assem- 
bled by  order  of  the  Emperor,  in  one  of  the  cities  of  the  Empire ; 
and  that  their  divines  should  have  a  voice  and  a  seat  in  its  meet- 
ings. The  Pope  was  to  submit  to  its  authority,  and  all  matters 
should  there  be  decided  according  to  the  rule  of  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tures. These  terms  were  by  no  means  agreeable  to  the  Catho- 
lics. Pkul  HL  summoned  a  Council  at  Mantua  (1587,)  and 
another  at  Vicenza  (1658 ;)  but  both  of  these  convocations  were 
inefTectuad,  as  was  also  the  proposed  reform  in  the  Court  of  Rome, 
made  W  the  same  Pontiff.  It  was  resolved  at  last,  at  the  instance 
of  the  Catholic  princes  (1542,)  to  convoke  the  Council  of  Trent, 
though  the  opening  of  it  was  deferred  till  1545. 

This  famous  Council  met  vrith  two  interruptions;  the  fint 
took  place  in  1547,  when  the  Pope,  who  had  become  alarmed  at 
the  success  of  the  Imperial  arms,  transferred  the  Council  to  Bo* 
logna,  <m  pretence  that  an  midemic  distemper  had  broken  out  at 
TMnt.  All  the  prelates  of  the  Emperor's  party  remained  at 
Trent,  in  obedience  to  the  eommand  of  their  master,  who  pra* 
tested  loudly  against  the  assembly  at  Boloona,  which  neverth»> 
len  held  its  mnth  and  tenth  Senions  at  that  oihr.  This  laMer 
Goimcil  having  been  dissolvod  by  I^ul  III.  (IMS,)  if$ 

VOL.  L  19 


918 


oaAmi  vn. 


fJ 


coatfaiiNd  in  •  languid  atate  for  the  next  two  yran,  wnert  Pope 
Jvliaa  III.,  the  toecetsor  of  Paul,  revived  it,  and  transferred  it 
oaoe  more  to  Trent  (1551.)  Another  interruption  totric  place  al 
the  time  when  Maurice,  Elector  of  Saxony,  had  made  nimself 
master  of  Augsburg,  and  was  marching  against  the  Emperor 
towards  Inspruck.  It  was  then  agreed  to  prorogue  the  Council, 
now  in  its  sixteenth  Session,  for  two  years ;  and  to  assemble 
again  at  the  end  of  that  period,  if  peace  should  happen  in  the 
mean  time  to  be  established.  At  length,  in  1660,  Pius  IV., 
summoned  the  Council,  for  the  third  and  last  time,  to  meet  at 
Trent.  The  session,  however,  did  not  commence  till  1652 ;  and 
next  year  its  sittings  were  finally  terminated. 

In  this  Council,  matters  wore  not  treated  in  the  same  way  as 
they  hod  been  at  Constance  and  Basle,  where  each  nation  delibe- 
rated separately,  and  then  gave  their  suflrage  in  common,  so  that 
the  general  decision  was  taken  according  to  the  votes  of  the  dif* 
ferent  nations.  This  form  of  deliberation  was  not  at  all  palatable 
to  the  Court  of  Rome,  who,  in  order  to  gain  a  preponderance  in 
the  assembly,  thought  proper  to  decide,  by  a  majority  of  the  votes 
of  every  individual  member  of  the  Council.  The  Protestant 
princes  rejected  entirely  the  authority  of  thia  Council ;  which, 
far  from  terminating  the  dispute,  made  tb  .<  schism  wider  than 
ever.  Its  decisions  were  even  condemneii  ty  several  of  the  Ca- 
tholic sovereigns.  In  France,  more  especiallv,  it  was  never 
formoUy  published,  and  they  expressly  excnided  such  of  its  acts 
of  disciplme  as  they  considered  contrary  to  the  laws  of  the  king- 
dom, to  the  .authority  of  the  sovereign,  and  the  maxims  of  the 
QaUican  Church. 

It  is  nevertheless  certain  that  this  Council  was  instrumental  in 
restoring  the  toUering  power  of  the  Roman  pontiffs ;  which  receiv- 
ed at  the  same  time  a  new  support  by  the  institution  of  the  Order 
of  the  Jesuits.  The  fourl-^r  of  this  order  was  Ignatius  Loyola, 
who  was  bom  at  the  Cast'e  of  Loyola  in  Ouinuscoa.  He  made 
the  declaration  of  his  vows  in  i!.-  rhurch  of  Montmartre  at  Paris 
(1634,)  and  obtained  from  Paul  ill.  the  confirmation  of  his  new 
Society.  This  order  was  bound,  by  a  particular  vow  of  obedi- 
ence, more  intimately  to  the  Court  of  Rome ;  and  became  one  of 
the  main  instnimonts  of  its  enormous  power.  From  Spain  the 
Society  waa  speedily  propagated  in  all  ue  other  Catholic  States ; 
tkay  filled  dtaes  ami  courts  with  thchr  emissaries ;  undertook 
missions  to  China,  Japan,  and  the  Indies ;  and  under  the  special 
pNtaction  of  the  See  of  Rome,  they  soon  surpassed  in  credit 
mat  WNikh  ovsry  other  religious  order. 

~  >  tht  midst  M  thme  chuiges  which  took  jibee  in  civil  and 
1  watltrs,  we  find  a  new  system  arising  in  the  poli- 


two  yean,  wnen  Pope 
it,  and  transfemd  it 

irruption  tovk  place  at 
|ony,  had  made  nimself 

against  the  Emperor 
lo  prorogue  the  Council, 

ears ;  and  to  assemble 
e  should  happen  in  the 

h,  in  1660,  Pius  IV., 
id  last  time,  to  meet  at 

mmence  till  1662 ;  and 
ated. 

ited  in  the  same  way  aa 

rhere  each  nation  delibe* 

Frage  in  common,  so  that 

g  to  the  votes  of  the  dif* 

n  was  not  at  nil  palatable 

gain  a  preponderance  in 

)y  a  majority  of  the  votes 

ouncll.     The  Protestant 

of  thia  Council ;  which, 

e  th><.  schism  wider  than 

leii  by  several  of  the  Ca- 

ertpecially,  it  was  never 

excluded;  such  of  its  acts 

y  to  the  laws  of  the  king- 

,  and  the  maxims  of  the 

tuncil  was  instrumental  in 
lan  pontifTs ;  which  receiv- 
le  institution  of  the  Order 
rder  was  Ignatius  Loyola, 
in  Ouipuscoa.  He  made 
ch  of  Montmartre  at  Paris 
e  confirmation  of  his  new 
I  particular  vow  of  obedi- 
Elome;  and  became  one  of 
power.  From  Spain  the 
the  other  Catholic  States ; 
at  emisaariea;  undertook 
ies;  and  under  the  special 
aeon  surpaaaed  in  credit 
r. 

;h  todc  place  in  civil  and 
lyatcm  ariaing  in  the  poli* 


FIBIOD.  VL     A.  o.  14S&— 1648. 


tit 


tied  government  of  Enrope ;  the  eonaequence  of  thoae  new  tiea 
and  relations  which  had  been  eataUished  amongit  the  diSirent 

Sowers  since  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  centurV'  Prior  to  this 
ate,  most  of  the  European  States  were  feeble,  because  inaukted 
and  detached.  Occupied  with  their  own  particular  interests  and 
quarrels,  the  nations  were  little  acquainted  with  each  other,  and 
seldom  had  any  influence  on  their  mutual  destinies.  The  faults 
and  imperfections  inherent  in  the  feudal  system  had  pervaded  all 
Europe,  and  crippled  the  power  and  the  energies  of  government. 
The  sovereigns,  continually  at  war  with  their  lactious  and  power- 
ful vassals,  could  neither  form  plans  of  foreign  conquest,  nor  carry 
them  into  execution ;  and  their  military  operations  were  in  ge- 
neral without  unity  or  eflcct.  [Hence  it  happened,  that  in  me 
middle  a^es,  changes  were  produced  in  the  different  States, 
which  so  little  alarmed  their  neighbours,  that  it  may  be  said 
they  were  scarcely  conscious  of  their  existence.  Such  were  the 
conquestH  of  the  English  in  France,  which  might  certainly  have 
compromised  the  independence  of  Europe.] 

A  combination  of  causes  and  circumstances,  both  physical 
and  moral,  produced  a  revolution  in  the  manners  and  govern- 
ments of  most  of  the  Continental  States.  The  disorders  of 
feudal  anarchy  gradually  disappeared ;  constitutions  better  or- 
ganized were  introduced ;  the  temporary  levies  of  vassals  were 
succeeded  by  regular  and  peripanent  armies ;  which  contributed 
to  humble  the  exorbitant  power  of  the  nobles  and  feudal  barons. 
The  consequence  was,  that  States  formerly  weak  and  exhausted, 
acquired  stren^h ;  while  their  sovereigns,  freed  from  the  tur* 
bulence  and  intimidation  of  their  vassals,  began  to  extend  their 
)x>litical  views,  and  to  form  projects  of  aggrandisement  and 
'conquest. 

From  this  period  the  reciprocal  influence  of  the  European 
States  on  each  other  began  to  be  manifest.  Those  who  were 
afraid  for  their  indepetidence,  would  naturally  conceive  the  idea 
of  a  balance  of  power  capable  of  protectine  them  against  the  in 
roads  of  ambitious  and  warlike  princes.  Hence  those  frequent 
embassies  and  negotiations ;  those  treaties  of  alliance,  subeidies, 
and  guarantees ;  those  wars  carried  on  by  a  general  comlMna- 
tion  of  powers,  who  deemed  themselves  obliMd  to  bear  a  part 
in  the  common  cause ;  and  hence  too  those  projects  for  estabnsh- 
ing  checks  and  barriers  on  each  oUier,  which  oecapied  the  Hi- 
ferent  courts  of  Europe. 

[The  s^tem  of  eqailibriom  or  the  balance  of  power,  origiaated 
in  Italy.  That  peninsula,  sepamted  firom  the  reat  of  thia  wn^inwtf 

Sr  the  aea  and  the  Alps,  had  outatripped  the  otiier  eoantriaa  m 
e  career  of  civilixation.    There  a  moltitade  of  '   ' 


b^ 


.£* 


gp  ItAVTIB  TIT. 

ttiM  had  bMn  foimwl,  un«au«l  in  point  of  I»w«  •»!  t";-";; 

S'  ySt  of  pndeur.  wa.  the  fir.t  against  «rhKh  its  efforts 

jLfCS.  Chart-  -l  F.j«n-.  .h«  ^l^J,^ 
CaontriM  in  iighl  of  hij  """^j.,?'"^',?^;  l„  bM«nie  heir  to 

Spanish  America.    To  these  vast  P«?^"»°""     ^^gmitted  to 
Simonial  dominions  »%AuJm,  wbgh  w«e  ^^^^         j 

El  by  his  paternal  8n*nif*J«  «« ^™^^  j^^^ 

Alwut  the  .«ne  time  (16W0  die  Imje^^^  ^^^  ^^^ 

on  Otis  prince  by  Ae  electors ,  ^J^^r^j^yferial  ae  that 
iince  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  a  monarchy  so  powe« 


int  of  powtr  and  •ztont ; 

ofth  to  rwiit  tho  united 

thorn ;  while  ot  the  Hune 

ibie  in  point  of  weaknen, 

lo.  Hence  that  rivalry  and 

leiMUitly  watching  over  the 

lOnee,  too,  a  aeriei  of  wars 

to  maintain  some  degree  of 

relative  proportion,  whirh 

ge  and  confidence.     Tlte 

in  these  trmnuctione,  em> 

y  foreign  powor  from  inter- 

The  doctrine  of  political 

le  end  of  the  fiAepnth  cen* 

:h  had  suddenly  riflen  to  a 

rat  against  which  its  efforts 

igin  from  Rodolph  of  Haps- 
Sermnuy  towards  the  end  of 
>atnes8  and  elevation  chieflv 
erent  family  alliances  which 
iximilian  of  Aupiria,  son  of 

Marv  of  Burgundy  (147t,) 
e  Rash,  last  Duke  of  Buf- 
Lustna  the  whole  of  the  Low 
nt^,  Flanders,  and  Artois. 
&rriage,  espoused  the  Infanta 
id  Isabella  of  Castillo.  They 
inand,  the  former  of  whom, 
Charles  V.,  inherited  the  Low 
iHp(1606.)  On  the  death  of 
er  (1616,)  he  became  heir  to 
lich  comprehended  the  king- 
uid   Sardinia,  together  with 

poesessiona  were  added  his 
,  which  were  transmitted  to 
the  Emperor  Maximilian  I. 
nperial  cugnity  was  conferred 
I  that  Europe  had  not  seen, 
nonaichy  so  powerful  as  that 

y  wiA  his  brother  Ferdinand, 
leieditary  possessions  in  Ger- 
Hune  the  founders  of  the  two 
r  Austria,  vis.  that  of  Spain, 


rauoD  Tt.    a.  B.  1113— IMS. 

which  began  with  Charlaa  V.,  (calM  Charles  1. 1(  Spain,)  and 
ended  with  Charles  H.  (1700;)  and  that  of  Gennany,  of  whkh 
Ferdinar  I.  was  the  ancestor,  and  which  became  extinct  in  the 
male  line  in  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.  (i740.)  These  two 
branches,  closek  allied  to  each  other,  acted  in  concert  for  the 
advancement  of'^their  reciprocal  interests ;  moreover  they  gaimtd 
each  ih  r  own  separate  advantases  by  the  marriage  connexions 
which  <  ^y  formed.  Ferdinand  I.  of'^the  German  line,  married 
Anne  ■t'il,)  sister  of  Louis  King  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia, 
who  having  been  slain  by  the  Turks  at  the  Mttle  of  Mohacs 
(lfiS6,)  thase  two  kingdoms  devolved  to  Ferdinand  of  the  House 
of  Austria.  Finally,  the  marriage  which  Charles  V.  contracted 
with  the  Infant  Isaliella,  daughter  of  Emmanuel,  King  of  Por- 
tugal, procured  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  the  son  of  that  marriage, 
the  whole  Portuguese  monai'chy,  to  which  he  succeeded  on  the 
death  of  Henry,  called  the  Cardinal  (IfiSO.)     So  vast  an  ag- 

Kandizement  of  power  alarmed  the  sovereigns  of  Europe,  who 
gan  to  suspect  that  the  Austrian  Princes,  of  the  Spanish  and 
German  line,  aimed  at  universal  monarchy.  The  unbounded 
ambition  of  Charles  V.,  and  his  son  Philip  II.,  aa  well  as  that 
of  Ferdinand  II.,  grandson  of  Ferdinand  f,  tended  to  confirm 
these  suspicions  ;  and  all  felt  the  necessity  of  uniting  to  oppose 
a  barrier  to  this  overwhelming  power.  For  a  long  time  the 
whole  policy  of  Europe,  its  wars  and  alliances,  had  no  other 
object  than  to  humble  the  ambition  of  one  nation,  whose  pre- 
ponderance  seemed  to  threaten  the  liberty  and  independence  of 
the  rest. 

[The  system  of  political  equilibrium,  which  from  this  period 
became  the  leading  object  of  every  European  cabinet,  until  it 
was  undermined  by  unjust  and  arbitrary  interferences,  and 
threatened  to  bury  uie  independence  of  Europe  in  its  ruins,  did 
not  aim  at  maintaining  among  the  different  states  an  equality 
of  power  or  territonkl  possession.  This  would  have  been  chi- 
merical. The  object  of  this  syptem  was  to  maintain  a  perfect 
equality  of  rights,  in  virtue  of  which  the  weaker  might  enjoy 
in  security  all  that  they  held  by  a  just  claim.  It  was  purely  a 
defensive  and  preservative  system ;  nor  did  it  affect  to  put  an 
end  to  all  wars  ;  it  was  directed  solely  against  the  ambition  and 
usurpation  of  conquerors.  Its  fundamental  principle  was  to 
prevent  any  one  state  from  acquiring  sufficient  power  to  resist 
the  united  efforts  of  the  others.] 

France  was  the  leading  power  that  undertook  the  task  of  re- 
gulating the  balance  against  the  House  of  Austria.  Francis  I. 
and  Henry  II.  used  every  effort  to  excite  combinations  against 
Charles  V.    Francis  was  the  first  sovereign  in  Europe  that 

19* 


:?! 


Hi  CaAFTSB  VU. 

•nterad  iato  treaties  of  aHiuiee  with  tlM  Toikr  afainst  Aintria ; 
•ad  ki  thia  way  tke  Porte  was,  to  a  certain  extent,  amalpfamated 
with  the  political  system  of  Europe.  So  long  as  their  object 
wu  to  saWert  the  fSeudal  aristocrecy,  and  the  Protestant  reli* 
(Mtn  in  France,  Francis  and  Henry  were  strenuous  defenders 
of  die  Germanic  system,  and  extended  their  protection  to  the 
sovereigns  of  the  Protestant  States  of  the  Empire,  under  the 
persuasion  that  all  Europe  would  bend  to  the  Austrian  yoke,  if 
the  Emperors  of  that  House  should  succeed  in  rendering  their 

Ewer  absolute  and  hereditary  in  the  Empire.  Henry  IV., 
mis  XIII.,  and  the  Cardinals  Richelieu  and  Mazarin,  adopted 
the  same  line  of  policy**  They  joined  in  league  with  the 
Pkotestant  Princes,  and  armed  by  turns  the  greater  part  of  Eu- 
rope against  Austria,  and  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  II.,  whose 
ambitious  designs  threatened  to  subvert  the  constitution  of  the 
Empire.  This  was  the  grand  motive  for  the  famous  Thirty 
Years'  War,  which  was  put  an  end  to  by  the  treaties  of  West- 
idialia  (1648,)  and  of  the  Pyrenees  (1659.)  France  succeeded, 
not  however  without  prodigious  efforts,  in  supporting  the  ba- 
koce  against  Austria;  while  the  federative  system  of  the 
Empire,  consolidated  by  the  former  of  these  treaties,  and  gua> 
raateed  by  France  and  Sweden,  became  a  sort  of  artificial  bar- 
rier, for  preserving  the  equilibrium  and  the  general  tranquillity 
•f  Europe. 

It  was  during  this  period  that  almost  every  kingdom  in  Eu- 
rope changed  ueir  condition,  and  assumed,  by  degrees,  the  form 
which  they  have  still  retained.  The  German  Empire  continued 
to  experience  those  calamities  to  which  every  government  is 
exposed,  when  its  internal  springs  have  lost  their  vigour  and 
activity.  Private  wars  and  feuds,  which  the  laws  authorized, 
were  then  regarded  as  the  chief  bulwark  of  the  national  liberty ; 
the  noblesse  and  the  petty  states  in  general,  knew  no  other  jus- 
tice than  what  the  swora  cHspensed.  Oppression,  rapine  and 
violence,  were  become  universal ;  commerce  languished ;  and 
the  different  provinces  of  the  Empire  presented  one  melan- 
choly scene  of  ruin  and  desolation.  The  expedients  that  were 
tried  to  remedy  these  disorders,  the  truces,  the  treaties  (called 
the  Peace  of  God,)  and  the  different  confederacies  of  the  Im- 
perial states,  served  only  to  palliate,  but  not  tc  cure  the  evil. 
The  efforts  which  some  of  the  Emperors  made  to  establish  the 
public  tranquillity  on  some  solid  basis,  proved  eqtially  abortive. 

It  was  not  until  near  the  end  of  t.'>e  ^fteenth  century  that  the 
slates  of  the  Empire,  impressed  with  juster  notions  of  govern- 
ment and  civil  subordination,  consented  to  the  total  and  entire 
ditolition  of  feuds  and  intestine  wars.     This  was  accomplished 


«MMIMM 


m. 

ihm  Toikr  against  Auatria; 
certain  extent,  amalpamated 
So  long  as  their  object 
and  the  Protestant  rsli* 
were  strenuous  defenders 
ided  their  protection  to  Uie 
of  the  Empire,  under  the 
ind  to  the  Austrian  yoke,  if 
succeed  in  rendering  their 
the  Empire.    Henry  IV., 
lelieu  and  Mazarin,  adopted 
joined  in  league  with   the 
turns  the  greater  part  of  Eu- 
aperor  Ferdinand  II.,  whose 
bvert  the  constitution  of  the 
notive  for  the  famous  Thirty 
d  to  by  the  treaties  of  West* 
!s  (16o9.)    France  succeeded, 
eiibrts,  in  supporting  the  ba- 
le federative   system   of  the 
er  of  these  treaties,  and  gua- 
lecame  a  sort  of  artificial  bar- 
n  and  the  general  tranquillity 

Imost  every  kingdom  in  Eu- 
assumed,  by  degrees,  the  form 
'he  German  Empire  continued 
J  which  every  government  is 
gs  have  lost  their  vigour  and 
I,  which  the  laws  authorized, 
ulwark  of  the  national  liberty ; 
in  general,  knew  no  other  jus- 
sed.  Oppression,  rapine  and 
;  commerce  languished;  and 
2mpire  presented  one  melan- 
a.  The  expedients  that  were 
he  truces,  the  treaties  (called 
erent  confederacies  of  the  Im- 
liate,  but  not  tc  cure  the  evil, 
mperors  made  to  establish  the 
basis,  proved  eqtially  abortive, 
f  t'le  Qfteenth  century  that  the 
(vith  juster  notions  of  /ovem- 
sented  to  the  total  and  entire 
rars.     This  was  accomplished 


FBEIOO  ▼!.     A.  D.  1403 — 1648. 


luider  the  raign  of  Bfaxfanilian  L,  hy  the  Permhui  PtMie 
Ptaee,  drawn  up  at  the  Diet  of  Worms  in  14,96.  All  violent 
means  of  tedresa  anong  the  memben  of  the  Germanic  Body 
were  rigonmsly  interdicted ;  and  all  who  had  any  compkints  to 
make  against  each  other,  were  enjoined  to  ^fiy  to  the  regahur 
courts  of  justice.  This  ordinance  of  the  Panic  Peace,  iniich 
was  afterwards  renewed  and  enlarged  in  several  diets,  lus  been 
regarded,  since  that  time,  as  one  of  the  principal  and  Ainda- 
mental  laws  of  the  Empire. 

The  establishment  of  the  Public  Peace  rendered  a  reforma- 
tion necessary  in  the  administration  of  justice,  which  had  long 
been  in  a  languid  and  disordered  state.  For  this  purpose,  the 
Imperial  Ch^ber,  which  sat  at  first  at  Sphre,  and  was  after- 
wards transferred  to  Wetzlar,  was  instituted  at  the  Diet  of 
Worms  (1496.)  Its  object  was  to  judge  of  any  dilSerences  diat 
might  arise  among  the  immediate  members  of  the  Grermanic 
body;  as  also  to  receive  any  appeals  that  might  be  referred  to 
them  from  the  subordinate  tribunals.  It  was  composed  of  a 
chief  or  head,  called  the  Judge  of  the  Chamber,  and  of  a  cer- 
tain number  of  assessors  chosen  from  among  the  jurists  and 
independent  nobility.  The  institution  of  the  Aulic  Council, 
another  sovereign  court  of  the  Empire,  followed  soon  after  that 
of  the  Imperial  Chamber.  Its  origin  is  generally  referred  to 
the  Diet  of  Cologne  (1512.)  Of  the  same  date  also  is  the  plan 
which  they  adopted  of  dividing  the  Empire  into  ten  Circles,  as 
a  [woper  expedient  for  maintaining  the  public  peace,  and  fisci- 
litating  the  execution  of  the  sentences  of  the  two  Imperial 
Courts.  Over  each  of  these  circles  were  placed  princes,  direc- 
tors, and  colonels,  whose  duty  it  was  to  superintend  «end  com- 
mand the  troops  of  their  respective  districts. 

The  custom  of  Imperial  Capitulations  was  introduced  at  the 
time  of  the  accession  of  Charles  V.  to  the  Imperial  throne  (1519.) 
The  Electors,  apprehensive  of  the  formidable  power  of  that 
prince,  thought  proper  to  limit  it  by  a  capitulation,  which  they 
made  him  sign  and  solemnly  swear  to  ol»erve.  This  compact 
between  the  new  Emperor  and  the  Electors,  renewed  under  every 
subsequent  reign,  has  been  always  considered  as  the  grand  char- 
ter of  the  liberties  of  the  Germanic  body. 

The  dissensions  on  the  score  of  religion  that  happened  about 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  gave  rise  to  a  long  series 
of  troubles  and  civil  wars,  which  proved  of  advantage  to  the 
House  of  Austria,  by  the  confirmation  of  their  power  in  the  Em- 
pire. The  first  of  these  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  war  of 
Smalcalden,  of  which  the  following  is  a  brief  sketch.  The  Em- 
peror Charles  V.,  in  the  first  diet  which  he  held  at  Worms  (1521,) 


•"-""mmm 


/•-(ii 


MjUFTBmvn. 


luul  iMMd  an  edict  of  proscription  apwMt  Luther  and  >»  »J^«- 
SSiVcSining  that  Aey  Aould  he  treated  as  enemiM  of  Ae 
fflre,  widpUcuted  to  the  utmost  n8«"  o^*' 1  Pm JSi? 
amffin  of  Uiis  edict  was  incessanUy  urged  by  the  Emperor 
StTpope^kgates,  untU  the  whole  Empire.wa.  m  a  stateof 
SSbustion:    iScathoUcprin^s.  at  the  "fSi??".!  SSe 
nX  CRinneffirio.  assembled  at  Ratiabonne  (lfi24,)  and  tliere 
^opSrSS^Textreme  rigour,  for  putting  tke  edi^^^^^ 
eSon  within  their  respective  states.    The  «we 'ras  by  no 
Ss  Ae  ««ne  with  the  princes  and  states  who  adhered  to  the 
RSSonrwhogavelttheir  protection.    To  apply  the  con- 
S^nr*;  edict  tfthem,  it  would  have  been  necessary  to 
comrto  a  civil  war,  which  the  more  prudent  members  of  the 
oSLmiclSdy  "ought  to  avoid.    This  religious  schism  was  sUU 
moinS^ted  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  where  the  Emperor 
SSJd^we, condemning  the  Confessionof  Faith  whicVdie 
P^^tLit^Ses  had  presented  to  him     This  decree  kni^  a 
time  within  which  they  were  commanded,  m  so  far  as  'egaxaea 
iTaS  "i^Sute,  to  conform  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Cathohc 
Ch,^     Thus  Jrged  to  extremities,  the  Protestaxit  leaders  de- 
TeSed  to  aS^mbfe  at  Smalcalden  before  the  end  of  Ais  venr 
!fi«  nSw)  ^  where  they  laid  the  foundation  of  a  Unton,  or  de- 
Cii'S^^l^LtLaJerwardsrenew^^^^^^^ 

S  S  oS^y,  the  Catholic  princes  instituted jhelWy 
Lague;  so  called  because  its  object  was  the  defence  of  the 
"^  w'S-med  to  announce  a  civil  war.  when  an  w 
irroSn  T^e  Turks  into  Hungary  and  Austria,  induced  the 
SoUcs  to  sign,  at  Nuremberg  (1630,)  a  truce,  or  accommoda- 
S^S  the^kces  of  the  Union ;  in  virtue  of  which,  a  pea^ 

K^nthe  etotes  of  the  two  'el!gi«n^7'«„^°",tl  "^^^^^^^^ 
moved  bv  the  Emperor;  to  continue  till  a  General  l^o«ncil,  or 
Sme  neJ  assembl^  should  decide  othermse.    TJus  jea  e  wy 
renewed  in  various  subequent  assemblies.      lUe   "«tes»ni 


mam 


linst  Luther  and  his  adhe* 

treated  aa  enemies  of  the 

rigour  of  the  law.    The 

itly  urged  by  the  Emperor 

le  Empire  was  in  a  state  of 

at  the  mstigation  of  Cardi- 

ibonne  (lSS4,)  and  Uiere 

|r,  for  putting  the  edict  into 

lies.    The  case  was  by  no 

d  states  who  adhered  to  the 

tection.    To  apply  the  con- 

d  have  been  necessary  to 

re  prudent  members  of  the 

lis  religious  schism  was  still 

gsburg,  where  the  Emperor 

nfession  of  Faith  which  the 

him.     This  decree  limited  a 

anded,  in  so  far  as  regarded 

the  doctrines  of  the  Catholic 

I,  the  Protestant  leaders  de- 

I  before  the  end  of  this  very 

lundation  of  a  Union,  or  de- 

ds  renewed  at  difierent  times. 

,  and  Philip,  Landgrave  of 

f  this  Union.     In  opposition 

princes  instituted  the  Holy 

ject  was  the  defence  of  the 

ce  a  civil  war,  when  a  new 
ury  and  Austria,  induced  the 
530,)  a  truce,  or  accommoda- 
;  in  virtue  of  which,  a  peace 
;ions  was  concluded,  and  ap- 
lue  till  a  General  Council,  or 
i  otherwise.  This  peace  was 
issemblies.     The  Protestant 

>  their  reiusal  to  acknowledge 
ed  by  the  Popes;  and  their 
iccessions,  the  Emperbr,  after 
:  Crepy  (1544,)  and  concluded 
e  Turks,  resolved  to  declare 
10,  presuming  on  their  union 
breigii  powers,  thought  them- 

>  the  Empire.  He  issued  an 
it  the  Elector  of  Saxony  and 


nuoD  Tt.    A.  s.  14fi3-~1648. 

the  Landgrave  of  Hease,  the  two  chiefs  of  the  Union ;  and 
having  entered  into  a  secret  alliance  with  Duko  Maurice,  a 
younger  branch  of  the  family  of  Saxony,  and  a  near  relation  of 
the  Elector,  he  succeeded  in  transferring  the  theatre  of  war  from 
the  D^ube  to  the  Elbe.  The  Elector  being  defeated  by  the 
Emperor,  in  an  action  which  took  place  at  Mecklenburg  (1547,) 
fell  mto  the  hands  of  the  conqueror ;  and  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse 
met  with  the  same  fate  two  months  after.  The  Union  of  Smal- 
calden  was  then  dissolved,  and  the  Emperor,  who  now  saw  him- 
self master  of  Germany,  assembled  a  Diet  at  Augsburg,  in  which 
he  acted  the  part  of  a  dictator.  A  large  detachment  of  his  troops, 
billeted  on  the  city,  served  as  his  body  guard,  while  the  rest  of 
his  army  was  encamped  in  the  neighbourhood.  At  this  diet,  he 
conferred  on  Duke  Maurice  the  Electorate  of  Saxony,  of  which 
he  had  deprived  his  prisoner,  John  Frederick.  The  investiture 
of  the  new  Elector  took  place  at  Augsburg  (1548;)  and  what 
deserves  to  be  particularly  remarked  in  this  diet  is,  that  the  Em- 
peror entered  into  a  scheme  for  the  entire  ruin  and  extirpation 
of  Protestantism,  by  compelling  the  princes  and  states  of  the 
Reformation  to  rejoin  the  Catholic  Church,  by  means  of  a  formula 
which  he  made  them  adopt,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Interim  ; 
and  which,  by  its  preliminary  arrangement,  allowed  them  only 
the  use  of  the  communion  in  both  kinds,  and  the  marriage  of 
their  priests,  until  the  whole  matter  should  be  decided  by  a 
Council. 

The  victories  of  Charles  V.,  which  seemed  to  have  made  him 
absolute  master  of  the  Empire,  were  soon  followed  by  reverses, 
which  eclipsed  all  the  former  glory  of  his  reign.  The  Elector 
Maurice,  though  indebted  to  him  for  his  new  dignity,  thought 
he  might  take  advantage  of  the  distressed  condition  to  which 
that  prince  was  reduced  by  the  low  state  of  his  finances,  to  make 
a  new  attempt  to  limit  his  authority,  and  restore  the  Protestant 
religion.  With  this  view,  having  inlisted  some  of  the  princes 
of  ue  Empire  in  his  cause,  and  concluded  a  secret  treaty  with 
Henry  IL  of  Fran . ;,  at  Chambord,  he  marched  with  such  rapi- 
dity against  the  Emperor,  that  he  nearly  surprised  him  at  Ins- 
pruck,  and  obliged  him  to  have  recourse  to  the  mediation  of  his 
raother  Ferdinand,  when  a  treaty  was  concluded  with  Maurice, 
which  was  signed  at  Ftosau  (1552.)  There  the  liber^  of  the 
Protestant  worship  was  sanctioned;  and  it  was  affreed  that  a 
General  Council  snould  be  summoned  to  draw  up  the  articles  of 
a  solid  and  permanent  peace  between  the  states  of  both  reli^ona. 

This  diet,  which  waa  long  retarded  W  political  events,  did  not 
aaaemUe  at  Augsburg  till  the  year  \oBo.  There  a  definitiTe 
peace  was  conclnded  on  die  su^ect  of  religiooi  and  it  was  or 


''^^-'■iiwm^Ndk&MNiii^^^wiKli^ 


■MB  aUPTBE  Ttt. 

dtined  that  both  FrotMtuit  and  C«th<^  itatM  dbrndd  wjjoy  a 
pnftet  liberty  of  wtnrahip ;  and  that  uu  reanion  should  orer  be 
attempted  by  any  other  than  amicaUe  means.  The  seeolari- 
■wig  of  the  ecclesiaetiad  revenues,  which  the  Protestant  princes 
iMd  introduced  into  their  states,  was  ratified;  but  there  was 
one  of  the  articles  of  the  treaty  T^hich  expressly  proTided,  that 
every  prehte  or  churd^an,  who  renounced  his  ancient  faith  to 
embrace  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  should  lose  his  benefice. 
This  latter  clause,  known  by  the  name  of  Eedetiastieal  Baerve, 
did  not  pass  but  with  the  most  determined  opposition. 

Difierences  of  more  kinds  than  one  sprung  from  this  treaty  of 
peace,— the  articles  of  which  each  party  interpreted  to  their  own 
advantage.     Hence  those  stratagems  which  at  length  occasioned 
a  new  war— that  of  the  Thirty  Years.     The  Protestant  Princes 
and  States,  wishing  to  provide  for  their  own  security,  and  to  put 
an  end  to  those  arbitrary  measures,  of  which  they  thought  they 
had  reason  to  complain,  assembled  at  Heilbrunn  (1694,)  and 
there  laid  the  foundation  of  a  new  union,  which  was  confirmed 
in  the  assemUies  held  at  Halle,  in  Suabia,  in  the  years  1608 
and  1610.     The  chief  promoter  of  this  union  was  Henry  IV.  of 
France,  who  designed  to  use  it  as  a  check  on  the  ambition  of  the 
House  of  Austria ;  and  as  a  means  for  carrying  into  execution 
the  grand  project  which  he  meditoted  with  regard  to  the  pacifi- 
cation of  Europe.     Ha  concluded  an  alliance  with  the  Princes 
of  the  Union,  and  determined  the  number  of  troops  to  be  furnish- 
ed by  each  of  the  contracting  parties.     The  Catholic  princes  and 
States,  afraid  of  being  taken  unawares,  renewed  their  League, 
which  thay  signed  at  Wurtzburg  (1609.)     The  rich  dutchy  of 
juliers,  which  had  become  vacant  this  same  year,  was  contested 
by  several  claimanto ;  and  as  Austria  was  equally  desirous  of 
possessing  it,  this  was  made  the  occasion  of  raismg  powerful 
a'^  aies  in  France,  Germany,  Italy,  and  the  Low  Countries.     A 
considerable  number  of  troops  had  ahready  taken  the  field,  about 
the  beginning  of  the  year  1610,  when  the  unexpected  death  of 
Henry  IV.  cUsconcerted  all  their  measures.    This  changed  the 
politics  of  the  French  court,  and  also  induced  the  Princes  of  the 
Union  to  conclude  a  treaty  vrith  the  League, — the  articles  of 
which  were  signed  at  Munich  and  Wildstett  (1610.) 

In  this  manner  the  resentment  of  both  parties  was  suspended 
for  the  moment ;  but  the  cause  of  their  disunion  still  remained, 
which  at  length  (1618)  kindled  a  war  that  extended  from  Bdie- 
mia  over  all  Germany,  and  involved,  in  course  of  time,  a  great 
put  of  Europe.  The  history  of  this  tedious  war,  in  which  poli- 
ties had  as  great  a  share  as  aed  for  relirion,  inay  be  divided  into 

fear  principal  periods,  naiuely,  the  nUatine,  die  Danirii,  w 


1 


ithdie  statM  dkoaU  «Bjo]r  a 
it  nu  reunion  should  ever  be 
lUe  means.    The  secolaii- 
'hich  the  Protestant  princes 
IS  ratified;  but  there  was 
fich  expressly  provided,  that 
inounced  his  ancient  faith  to 
■g,  should  lose  his  benefice. 
le  o[  Eecletittrtical  Bnerve, 
nined  opposition. 
ic  sprung  from  this  treaty  of 
arty  interpreted  to  their  own 
8  which  at  length  occasioned 
rs.     The  Protestant  Princes 
leir  own  security,  and  to  put 
of  which  they  thought  they 
at  Heilbrunn  (1594,)  and 
union,  which  was  confinned 
Suabia,  in  the  years  1608 
this  union  was  Henry  IV.  of 
check  on  the  ambition  of  the 
for  carrying  into  execution 
led  with  regard  to  the  pacifi- 
an  alliance  with  the  Princes 
umber  of  troops  to  be  furnish- 
s.     The  Catholic  princes  and 
irares,  renewed  their  League, 
1609.)     The  rich  dutchy  of 
this  same  year,  was  contested 
tria  was  equally  desirous  of 
Kcasion  of  raismg  powerful 
and  the  Low  Countries.     A 
slready  taken  the  field,  about 
hen  the  unexpected  death  of 
easures.     This  changed  the 
10  induced  the  Princes  of  the 
the  League,— the  articles  of 
Wildstett  (1610.) 
fboth  parties  was  suspended 
heir  disunion  still  remained, 
nur  that  extended  from  Bdie- 
id,  in  course  of  time,  a  great 
is  tedious  war,  in  whidi  poli> 
relinon,  may  be  divided  into 
e  nUatine,  the  Danish,  die 


mm 


ntioo  n.    A.  D.  1453—1649. 

Swedish,  and  the  Fropeh  War.  Frederidk  V.,  Elector  Palatine, 
and  head  of  the  Protestant  Union,  haring  been  raised  to  the 
throne  by  the  Bohemian  States  (1619,)  which  had  rebelled 
against  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  II.,  engaged  in  a  war  with  that 
prince ;  but  being  deserted  by  his  allies,  and  defeated  at  the  bet- 
tie  of  Prague  (1620,)  he  was  driven  from  Bohemia,  and  stripped 
of  all  his  dominions.  The  victorious  arms  of  Austria  soon  ex> 
tended  their  conquests  over  a  great  part  of  the  Empire. 

Christian  IV.,  King  of  Denmark,  who  was  in  alliance  with 
most  of  the  Protestant  princes,  next  undertook  the  defence  of  the 
federal  system ;  but  he  was  not  more  fortunate  than  the  Elector 
Palatine  had  been.  Being  defeated  by  Tilly,  at  the  famous  bat< 
tie  of  Latter  (1626,)  he  was  compelled  to  abandon  the  cause  of 
his  alliesi  and  to  sign  a  separate  peace  with  the  Emperor  at 
Lubeck  (1629.)  Gustavus  Adolphus,  King  of  Sweden,  pursued 
the  career  of  the  Danish  monarch.  Encouraged  by  France,  he 
put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Protestant  princes,  with  the  \  I  iw 
of  checking  the  ambitious  projects  of  Ferdinand  II.,  who,  by 
means  of  his  general,  Wallenstein,  whom  he  had  created  Duke 
of  Friedland,  and  invested  in  the  Dutchy  of  Mecklenburg,  was 
dictating  the  law  to  the  whole  Empire,  and  even  threatening 
the  kingdoms  of  the  North.  Nothing  could  be  more  splendid 
tlian  the  campaigns  of  the  Swedish  hero  in  Germany,  and  the 
victories  which  he  obtained  at  Leipsic  (1631,)  and  Lutter  (1632 ;) 
but  having  been  slain  in  the  latter  action,  the  affairs  of  the 
Swedes  began  to  decline ;  and  they  were  totally  ruined  by  the 
defeat  which  they  sustained  at  Nordiingen  (1(534.)  From  that 
time  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  John  Geoige  1.,  renounced  the  al- 
liance of  Sweden ;  and  in  yielding  up  Lusac-e  to  the  Emperor, 
he  consented  to  a  separate  treaty  of  peace,  which  was  signed  at 
Prague  (1635.) 

It  was  at  this  period  that  France,  which  till  then  had  but  fee» 
b).y  supported  the  Swedes  and  the  Protestant  Princes,  thought 
it  of  aavantage  to  her  interests  to  undertake  their  defence  against 
Austria.  Having  declared  war  against  Spain,  she  marched 
numerous  armies  at  once  into  Italy,  Spain,  Germany,  and  tite 
Low  Countries.  Bernard,  Prince  of  Saxe  Weimar,  and  the  three 
French  Generals,  Guebriant,  Turennc,  and  the  Duke  d'Enghien, 
siffnalized  themselves  by  their  exploits  in  the  Imperial  war; 
while  the  disci^es  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  Banier,  Torstenston, 
and  Wrangel,  distinguished  themselves  at  the  head  of  the  Swe« 
dish  armies,  in  the  various  campaigns  which  took  place,  from 
the  year  1635  till  the  conclusion  of  the  peace.  Never  were  ne* 
gotiations  more  tedious  or  more  complicated  than  diose  vHiieh 
preceded  the  treaty  of  Westphalia.    The  preliminaries  vere 


11 


mB  Mvi-  taurttn  vtt. 

•igMd  at  Hunlmrffh  in  1641 ;  bat  the  qieniog  •(/!»•  C<mgMM 
«t  Manner  and  OmalHurg,  did  not  tdce  pbce  tiU  1644.  The 
Goanti  D'Amux  and  Semen,  the  plenipotentiaries  of  Fiance, 
shaied  with  Oxenrtiem  and  Salyius,  the  Swedish  Envoys,  the 
principal  'dory  of  this  negotiatioii,  which  was  protracted  on  pur- 
pose, as  the  belligerent  powers  were  daily  expecting  to  see  the 
events  of  the  war  chanse  in  their  favour.  It  was  not  until  the 
Mth  of  October  1648,  that  the  peace  was  finally  signed  at  Mun- 
ster  and  Osnaburg. 

This  peace,  which  was  renewed  in  every  subseauent  treaty, 
and  made  a  fiindamental  law  of  the  Empire,  fixed  definitively 
the  constitution  of  the  Germanic  Body.  The  territorial  nghto 
of  the  states,  known  by  the  name  of  superiority— the  privilege 
of  making  alHanceswith  each  other,  and  with  foreign  powers— 
and  advising  with  the  Emperor  at  the  Diets,  in  every  thing  that 
concerned  Ae  general  administration  of  the  Empire,  were  con- 
firmed to  them  in  the  most  authentic  manner,  and  guaranteed 
by  the  consent  of  foreign  powers.  As  to  ecclesiastical  affairs, 
the  Religious  Peace  of  1666  was  confirmed  anew,  and  extended 
to  those  who  were  known  by  the  name  of  the  Beformed,  ot  Cal- 
vinitts.  The  state  of  religion,  the  forms  of  public  worship,  and 
the  enjoyment  of  ecclesiastical  benefices,  throughout  the  whole 
Empire,  were  regulated  according  to  the  decree,  called  UH 
muridetit  of  the  Ist  of  January  1624,  which  was  termed  the 
nwnud,  or  decretory  year.  In  this  treaty,  France  obtained,  by 
way  of  indemnity,  the  sovereignty  of  the  three  bishoprics,  Metx, 
Toul,  and  Verdun,  as  well  as  that  of  Alsace.  The  compensa- 
tion of  the  other  parties  interested,  was  settled  in  a  great  mea- 
sure at  the  expense  of  the  Church,  and  by  means  of  secularinng 
several  bishoprics  and  ecclesisastical  benefices. 

Besides  Pomerania  and  the  city  of  Wismar,  Swe.1en  got  the 
archbishopric  of  Bremen,  and  the  bishopric  of  Verden.  To  the 
House  of  Brandeburg,  they  assigned  Upper  Pomerania,  the 
archbishopric  of  Magdeburg,  the  bishoprics  of  Halberstadt.  Mm- 
den,  and  Camin.  The  House  of  Mecklenburg  receiwd,  in  lieu 
of  the  city  of  Wismar,  the  bishoprics  of  Schwerin  and  Rataeburg. 
The  princely  abbey  of  Hirschfeld  was  adjudged  to  the  Land- 
nave  of  Hesse-Cassel,  and  the  choice  of  the  bishopnc  «)f  Wma- 
bunr,  to  the  House  of  Bninswick-Luneburg.  An  eij^th  bloc- 
torate  was  inrtituted  in  favour  of  the  Elector  Pabtine,  ^om 
the  Emperoi,  daring  the  war,  had  divested  of  his  digrmt3r,  which, 
with  the  Uppw  Pflatinate,  he  had  conferred  oa  the  Duke  of 

The  giwter  part  of  the  provinces  known  by  the  name  of  Ae 
Low  Countriea,  made  part  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Leitaine, 


vrwr^t^f^as-mm 


opening  of  rhe  CongNM 
Itake  idace  till  1644.  The 
plenipotentwries  of  France, 
I,  the  Swedish  Envop,  die 
^h  wait  protracted  on  par- 
daily  expecting  to  see  Ute 
rour.  It  was  not  until  the 
I  was  finally  signed  at  Mun- 

n  every  subseauent  treatv, 
e  Empire,  fixea  definitirefy 
Ddy.     The  territorial  riffhts 
f  mperiority — the  privilege 
and  with  foreign  powers— 
le  Diets,  in  every  thing  that 
n  of  the  Empire,  were  con- 
tic  manner,  and  guaranteed 
As  to  ecclesiastical  affairs, 
nfirmed  anew,  and  extended 
me  of  the  Reformed,  or  Con- 
forms of  public  worship,  and 
efices,  throughout  the  whole 
',  to  the  decree,  called   Uti 
)24,  which  was  termed  the 
treaty,  France  obtained,  by 
>f  the  three  bishoprics,  Metz, 
of  Alsace.     The  compensa- 
was  settled  in  a  great  mea- 
md  by  means  of  secularizing 
d  benefices. 

of  Wismar,  Sweden  got  the 
tishopric  of  Verden.  To  the 
ved  Upper  Pomerania,  the 
ihoprics  of  Halberstadt,  Min- 
leeklenburg  received,  in  lieu 
I  of  Schwerin  and  Rataeburg. 
was  adjudged  to  the  Land- 
lice  of  the  bishopric  of  Osna- 
luneburg.  An  eighth  Elec- 
the  Elector  Bahtine,  vriiom 
livested  of  his  dignity,  which, 
1  conferred  on  the  jDake  of 

B  known  by  the  name  of  the 
incient  kingdom  of  Lemine, 


n»ioo  Ti.    A.  B.  14fll~.164a  SM 

whkh  had  been  united  to  the  German  Empire  ainee  the  tenik 
century.  The  ivineipal  of  theae  had  been  acquired  by  the  Dukaa 
of  Buigandyi  who  made  them  over,  with  other  estates,  to  tiie 
House  of  Austria  (1477.)  Charles  V.  added  the  provinces  of 
Frieshmd,  Oroningen,  and  Oueldres,  to  the  stat^  to  which  he 
had  succeeded  in  Burgundy.  He  united  die  seventeen  pro- 
vinces of  the  Low  Countries  into  one  and  the  same  government ; 
and  ordered,  by  the  PragTnatie  decree  which  he  puU»hed  (1549,) 
that  they  should  never  henceforth  be  disunited.  This  same 
prince,  at  the  diet  of  Augsburg  (1648,)  entered  into  a  negotia- 
tion with  the  Germanic  Body,  in  virtue  of  whioh  he  consented 
to  put  these  provinces  under  Aeir  protection ;  under  condition 
of  their  observing  the  public  peace,  and  paying  into  the  exche- 

Juer  of  the  Empire  double  the  contribution  of  an  Electorate, 
[e  guaranteed  to  the  princes  of  the  Low  Countries  a  vote  and 
a  seat  at  the  Diet,  as  chiefe  of  the  circle  of  Burgundy.  These 
provinces,  moreover,  were  to  be  considered  as  free  and  indepen- 
dent sovereignties,  without  being  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  eiuer 
of  the  Empire  or  of  the  Imperial  Chamber,  who  were  not  au- 
thorized to  proceed  against.  thi»m,  except  when  they  were  found 
in  arrears  with  the  payment  of  their  contingent,  or  when  they 
infringed  the  law  of  the  public  peace. 

Charles  V.  having  transferred  these  countries  to  his  son, 
Philip  II.  of  Spain,  they  were,  then  incorporated  with  the  Span- 
ish monarchy ;  and  it  was  under  the  reign  of  diis  latter  pmice 
that  those  troubles  began  which  gave  rise  to  the  Republic  of  die 
United  Provinces  of  the  Low  Countries.  The  true  origin  of 
these  trouUes  is  to  be  found  in  the  despotism  of  Philip  if,  and 
in  his  extravagant  and  fanatical  zeal  for  the  CathoUc  religi<m. 
This  prince,  me  declared  enemy  of  the  i  ^hts  and  libertiea  of 
the  Belgic  Provinces,  was  mortified  to  witness  the  religious  pri- 
vileges which  they  enjoyed ;  under  favour  of  which  the  ioc- 
trines  of  the  Reformation  were  daily  making  new  progresa. 
Being  resolved  to  extirpate  diis  new  faith,  tc^dier  with  the 
political  liberties  which  servedjo  protect  it,  he  introduced  th» 

ind  inft~" 
iithorit] 

.     ^  ^^- , 1  purpose,  tbe  metropohU— 

and  diocesan  rwhts  which  the  archbishops  and  bishops  of  the 
Empire  and  of  France  had  exercised  in  die  Low  Countries ;  ht 
instituted  diree  newbishrarics  at  Utrecht,  Cambray,  and  Medi- 
lin  I  and  under  their  jurisdiction  he  put  diirteen  new  bishoptiM 
^ich  he  had  erected,  besides  duMe  of  Arras  and  Tonmaj; 
Having  in  this  way  augmented  the  number  of  his  satellite*  a 
the  assembly  of  the  States-General,  he  suppreased  s-neat  i 

TOL.  I.  80 


HP  ourm  vn. 

thodc  ef  Men  and  moiiMteriet,  the  revennet  of  which  h»  tp- 
lOiad  to  the  endowment  of  hie  newly  made  bwhopnce. 
''^  taction.,  «lded  to  the  puWiction  of  the  decie*.  of 
the  Counca  of  Trent,  eccording  to  hw  orders,  excited  a  very 
emend  diKontent.  The  repeated  wmonstrance.  on  the  I«rt 
ffSeStatee,  havfaiR  produced  no  effect  on  the  inilexiWe  mind 

deiaey  at  Breda,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Co«l'««^-  ^  •"» 
cSerates  drew  up  a  request,  which  w"  «»d/e»5«^  »°  X 
J^fof  Aurtria,  the  natural  daughter  »[  C^a'^.V-!  %»«; 
^t  of  the  Low  Countries,  under  the  K.mf  o^  Spain.  Four 
Eundnd  aentlemen,  headed  by  Henry  de  ftederod^,  a  descen- 
dSt  ofTe  aScienl  Counts  ot  HoUand,  and  I^m.  o  Najjiu. 
SSher  to  the  Prince  of  Orange,  repaired  to  »"«••«>»<  J^^^J 
wTthere  presented  this  request,  wfiich  may  be  considered  as 
Se  cSSiJKnent  of  the  ^roubles  in  the  L"*  Cou"tn.s.  It 
was  on  this  account  that  the  name  o(  Gueux  ''^  beggar*  wu 
ri^w  to  the  Confederates,  which  has  become  so  famous  in  the 

AlJuf tWs'ILrSne,  the  populace  collected  in  mobs  in  seve- 
J3s  of  the  Low  CountnV,  and  feU  upon  the  churches  and 
monasteries ;  and  having  broken  down  their  alta«  ?"*  "~8^' 
SKfinteoduU  the  exereise  of  the  Protestant  re  igion  bv  form 
ThrtSSrn,  however,  was  cahned;  *«  Cathohc  wo«fi>P  wm 
«l«t«bliphed  every  where ;  and  ihe  confederacy  of  the  noWes 
SSJedr^vemrof  whom,  distrustfal  of  thj- appajegt  t^i- 
oSliv.  retired  to  foreign  countries.    WiUiam  Pnnce  of  Orange, 
&  of  NMsau,  the  Counts  de  Culemburg  and  Berg,  and  the 
cTt  de  bSoU.  were  in  the  number  of/h«j  emipams. 
PfcTlin  n     instead  of  adopting  measures  of  moderation  ano 
KSJv'iSing  to  til?  afvice  of  tiie  Regent,  was  deter- 
IZS^'J^XZnt  signal  manner,  tiiis  outm«  agamst 
rJelSrXhe  majesty o^throne.  ,  He  aent|efcmo«s 
DukeT Alba  or  Alva  iito  tiie  Low  Countries,  at  d»  head  of  an 
2«;3a).000men(lfi67.)    The  Itegent  Acn  g.^  m  he^w- 
SStion.    A  general  terror  overspread  the  eoimtty.     Vsat 
SSot  of  maSfacturers  and  meiaiante  took  refuge,  in  Eng- 
kS^S^ytoTlong  witii  tiiem  tiieir  arts  «»*  *«»  ""J^S 
SirffcSmme^  and  manufkctare.  of  the  L«w  Co^tng, 
i^  had  formerly  been  Uie  most  flounshing  in  Europe,  feU 

"^vZTli.^  immediatoly  on  hi.  ^^^^X^ 
ttibmnl «  court,  for  investigating  *•  ««««*»^i^*T 
Mnmittad  dnrinff  theae  commotions.  This  eouneO,  which  tl* 
''''^"^^jSS^rMJouiica  of  Blood,"  in&imad  against  aU 


^ 


'''"''^'WMMMiiiiaiitiitiifTtwriTfit'ir""-'''  '*'""''-"  ■'  '*■" 


imiiiiirf  wr)ii-Mi«*^t  ^■i»^.*.*"'^.^>*^^*<iwaa«»'* 


raTenoM  of  which  h«  ap* 

made  bishopries. 
ittUieation  of  the  decree*  of 
hie  orders,  excited  •  Tery 
remonstrances  on  the  part 
lect  on  the  inflexible  mind 
lution  of  forming  a  confe* 
«  of  the  Comjnvnute.  The 
jch  was  addressed  to  Mar<- 
Iter  of  Charles  V.,  and  Re< 

e  King  of  Spain.  Four 
iry  de  Brederod^,  a  descen- 
land,  and  Louis  of  Nassttu, 
Bpaired  to  Brussels  (1666,) 
rhich  may  be  considered  as 
I  in  the  Low  Countries.  It 
of  Gueux  or  Beggars  was 
as  become  so  famous  in  the 

ce  collected  in  mobs  in  sere* 
d  feU  upon  the  churches  and 
own  their  altars  and  images, 
Protestant  religion  by  force. 
;  the  Catholic  worship  was 
le  confederacy  of  the  nobles 
istful  of  this  apparent  tran- 
WiUiam  Prince  of  Oranae, 
ulemburg  and  Berg,  and  the 
number  of  these  emigrants, 
neasures  of  moderation  and 
e  of  the  Regent,  was  deter* 
[  manner,  this  outrase  against 
throne.  He  sent  the  unions 
r  Countries,  at  the  head  of  an 
B  Regent  then  gave  in  her  ie« 
rsprwui  the  country.  Vast 
nehants  took  refuge  in  Eng* 
heir  arts  and  their  industoy. 
etoies  of  the  Low  Countries, 
St  flourishing  in  Europe,  fell 

r  on  his  arrival,  established  a 
f  tlie  excesses  that  had  been 
is.  This  cooneil,  which  the 
Blood,"  informed  against  all 


OMil 


flBIOD  TI.     A.  D.  148^1648i 

thoae  who  had  been  in  any  way  concerned  with  tha  Chutut  or 
Beggmrs,  who  had  freaoented  their  preachings,  contributed  to 
the  support  of  their  ministers  or  the  building  of  their  chuiehea ; 
or  harbooied  and  protected  these  heretics,  either  directly,  or  i» 
directly.  Before  this  council,  whose  only  judges  were  the 
Duke  of  Alva  and  his  confidant  John  de  Vargas,  were  oited 
high  and  low,  without  distinction ;  and  all  those  whose  wealth 
excited  their  cupidity.  There  they  instituted  proceedings  u[afaiat 
the  absent  and  the  present,  the  dead  and  the  living;  and  con- 
fiscated their  soods.  Eighteen  thousand  persons  perished  by 
the  hands  of  me  executioner,  and  more  tluui  90,000  others  wore 
entirely  ruined.  Among  the  number  of  those  illustrious  tic* 
tims  or  Alva's  cruelty,  were  the  Counts  Egmont  and  Horn,  who 
were  both  behea4ea.  Their  execution  excited  a  general  in- 
dignation, and  was  the  signal  of  revolt  and  civil  war  throughout 
the  Low  Countries. 

The  Beggars,  who  seemed  almost  forgotten,  began  to  revive ; 
and  were  afterwards  distinguished  into  three  kinds.  All  the 
malcontents,  as  well  as  the  adherents  of  Luther  and  Calvin, 
were  called  simply  by  this  name.  Those  were  called  Beggars 
of  the  Woods,  who  concealed  themselves  in  the  forests  and 
marshes ;  never  sallying  forth  but  in  the  night,  to  commit  all 
sorts  of  excesses.  Lastly,  the  Maritime  or  Marine  Beggars, 
were  those  who  employed  themselves  in  piracy ;  infesting  the 
coasts,  and  mddiu[  descente'on  the  counti^. 

It  was  in  this  situation  of  affairs  that  the  Prince  of  Orange, 
one  of  the  richest  proprietors  in  the  Low  Countries,  assisted  oy 
his  brother  the  Counts  of  Nassau,  assembled  diflerent  bodies  of 
troops  in  the  Empire,  with  which  he  attacked  the  Low  Coun- 
tries in  several  places  at  once  (1668.)  Failing  in  these  fint 
attempts,  he  soon  changed  his  plan ;  and  associatnw  the  Uariae 
Beggars  in  the  cause,  he  ventured  to  attack  the  Spaniards  by 
sea.  The  Beggars,  encourased  by  that  Prince,  uid  Williun 
Count  de  la  Blark,  sumamedthe  Boor  of  Ardennes,  Xock  the 
city  of  BrUle  by  surprise  (1672,)  situated  in  the  Isle  of  Voom, 
and  regwded  as  the  b  ronghoid  of  the  new  rniublic  of  the  Bal- 
gie  Provinces.  The  capture  of  the  port  of  Brille  cansed  a  re- 
volution in  Zealand.  All  the  cities  of  that  province,  except 
Middleburg,  opened  their  gates  to  the  Beggars ;  and  their  as- 
ample  was  followed  by  most  of  the  towns  m  Holland.  An  as- 
sembly of  the  States  of  this  latter  province  met  this  same  Tear 
at  Dort,  where  they  laid  the  foundation  of  their  new  repaolic. 
The  Prince  of  Orange  was  there  declared  Staitkalder  or  Go- 
vernor of  the  provinces  of  Holland,  Zealand,  Friealand,  and 
Ubrecht ;  and  they  agreed  never  to  treat  with  the  Sponiaids,  e»> 


HP  OKArm  Tilt 

«Ml  W  oommoD  OMumt.    The  paUic  emeiM  of  Um  tshuMi 
iglriinr  wM  introdaeedl.  according  to  Um  foim  of  Godot*. 

tkii  rinoff  lepublie  beeomo  mon  firmlv  eitoMidied  in  con- 
MOveneo  of  Mmal  advutagoo  which  the  Confodentoo  had 
M&od  orer  the  Spaniards,  whoee  troops  being  badly  paid,  at 
hagUi  mutinied;  and  breaking  out  into  the  greatest  disorders, 
Sot  pillaged  several  cities,  among  others  Antwerp,  and  laid 
waMe  the  whole  of  the  Low  Countries.  The  States-General, 
dMn  assembled  at  Brussels,  implored  the  assistance  of  the  Prince 
•r  Orange  and  the  Confederates.  A  negotiation  was  then 
opened  at  Ghent  (lff76,)  between  the  States  of  Brussels,  and 
iSose  of  Holland  and  Zeahmd  ;  where  a  general  union,  known 
W  the  name  of  the  Paci/katiou  of  Ghent,  was  signed.  They 
engaged  mutually  to  assist  each  other,  with  the  view  of  expelUng 
tha  Spanlih  troops,  and  never  more  permitting  them  to  enter  the 
Low  Countries.  The  Confederates,  who  were  in  alliance  with 
Queen  Elisabeth  of  England,  pursued  the  Spaniards  every 
where,  who  soon  saw  themselves  reduced  to  the  single  provmces 
of  Luxemburg,  Limburg,  and  Namur. 

They  were  on  the  point  of  being  expelled  from  these  also, 
ishen  Uie  government  of  the  Low  Countries  was  intrusted  to 
Alexander  Fames^,  Prince  of  Parma.     Equally  distinguished  as 
a  politician  and  a  warrior,  this  Prince  revived  the  Spanish  inte- 
Msto     Taking  advantage  of  the  dissensions  which  had  arisen 
among  the  Confederates  from  the  diversity  of  their  religious 
o^ons,  he  again  reduced  the  provinces  of  Flanden,  Artois, 
ud  Hainault,  under  the  Spanish  dominion.    He  took  the  city 
of  Maestricht  by  assault,  and  entered  into  a  negotiaUon  with 
Ae  States-General  of  the  Low  Countries  at  Cologne,  under  the 
mediation  of  the  Emperor  Rodolph  IL,  the  Pope,  and  some  of 
tka  princes  of  the  Empire.    This  negotiaUon  proved  unsuccess- 
M ;  but  the  Prince  of  Orange,  foreseeinff  that  the  general  con- 
fcderacy  could  not  last,  conceived  the  plan  of  a  more  inUmato 
wion  among  the  Prorinces;  which  he  regarded  as  the  most  fit 
10  make  heS  against  the  Spaniards.    He  fixed  on  the  maritime 
piovinces.  such\a  HoUand,  Zealand,  and  Frieshmd ;  and  above 
■U.  on  thoee  whom  the  same  religious  creed,  vix.  the  Calvinistic, 
bid  attached  to  the  same  interests.    The  commerce  of  Hol- 
Ind.  and  Zealand,  and  Friesland,  began  to  make  new  promis 
duly.    Amstetdam  was  rising  on  the  ruins  of  Antwerp.    The 
flouishing  stato  of  their  marine  rendered  these  pronnces  for- 
nA*-'^  by  sea;  and  gave  them  the  means  not  only  of  repelluu; 

Iha  efibrta  of  tfa«  Sna^ards,  but  even  «><,  I«^*»g  *•»••£ 
taurine  provinces  which  iniAtjom  this  Umon.  Suchweretlie 
OMtivM  Idikk  indnead  thePrince  of  Orange  to  form  the  special 


•zeidM  of  the  nfimiMd 

the  fonn  of  Oeoeira. 

fimilT  etteblithed  in  con< 

'  'i  the  Confedemtee  had 

)|M  being  badly  peid,  at 

into  the  greeteet  diaorden, 

othera  Antweq),  end  laid 

iea.    The  Statea-Oeneral, 

the  aaaistance  of  the  Prince 

A  negotiation  waa  then 

Ithe  Statea  of  Bnuaela,  and 

ire  a  general  union,  known 

Ghent,  was  signed.    They 

r,  with  the  view  of  expelling 

permitting  them  to  enter  the 

,  who  were  in  alliance  with 

raued  the   Spaniards  every 

luced  to  the  single  provinces 

ur. 

f  expelled  from  these  also, 
Countries  was  intrusted  to 
I.  Equally  distinguished  as 
ce  revived  the  Spanish  into- 
issensions  which  had  arisen 
diversity  of  their  religious 
rovinces  of  Flanders,  Artois, 
lominion.  He  took  the  city 
ired  into  a  negotiation  with 
iintries  at  Cologne,  under  die 
li  11.,^  the  Pope,  and  some  of 
legotiation  proved  unsuccess- 
Bseeinff  that  the  general  con- 
the  plan  of  a  more  intimate 
h  he  regarded  as  the  most  fit 
s.  He  fixed  on  the  maritime 
id,  and  Friesland ;  and  above 
lus  creed,  via.  the  Calvinistic, 
ta.  The  commerce  of  Hoi- 
began  to  make  new  progress 
the  ruins  of  Antwerp.  Hie 
endered  theee  provinces  for* 
e  means  not  only  of  lepelUng 
iven  of  protecting  the  neigh- 
k  this  Union.  Such  were  the 
Bf  Orange  to  form  the  special 


mioD.  TL    A. ».  1MB— 16l8r  Mi 

eonfedeney  of  the  Seven  Ptovineea,  the  baaia  of  which  he  kid 
by  the  fiunoua  treaty  of  Union  conehided  at  Utneht  (1079.) 
lliat  Union  waa  there  declared  perpetual  and  indiHohihia ;  warn 
it  waa  agreed  that  the  Seven  Provineea,  vis.  those  of  Oueldres* 
Holland,  Zealand,  Utrecht,  Overyaael,  Friealand,  and  Oioniafan, 
ahould  henceforth  be  considered  aa  one  and  the  aamo  Provinoe. 
Each  of  theae,  neverthelesa,  waa  guaranteed  in  the  poaaeaaion  of 
their  rights  and  privileges— that  is,  their  absolute  aupariority  in 
every  wing  regarding  toeir  own  internal  adminiatiauoo. 

[We  may  remark,  however,  that  these  inanrreetioiiary  pro- 
vinces  had  not  oriffinally  the  design  of  forming  a  lepubUe. 
Their  intention,  at  first,  waa  only  to  maintain  their  politioJ  pri- 
vileges ;  and  they  did  not  abwlutely  shake  ofl*  tne  Spaidah 
authority  until  they  despaired  of  reconciliation.  M<H«ov«r,  they 
repeatedly  offered  the  sovereignty  of  their  Statea  to  diflerent 
foreiffn  princes  j  and  it  was  not  till  the  Union  of  Utrecht  that 
the  Seven  Provinces  became  a  federal  republic.  Conaequently 
every  thing  remained  on  its  ancient  footing ;  and  aome  of  the 

E rovinces  even  retained  their  -Stadtholders  or  governors,  at  the 
ead  of  their  administration.  Hence  that  mixture  of  monarchy, 
aristocracy,  and  democracy,  which  prevailed  in  theae  countriea; 
and  hence,  too,  the  feeble  tie  which  united  them  with  each  other, 
and  which  would  probably  have  speedily  broken,  if  Holland  had 
not,  by  its  riches  and  its  j^wer,  obtained  an  influence  and  pre* 
ponderance  which  maintained  the  Union.] 

The  declaration  of  the  independence  of  the  United  Provinces 
did  not  take  place  till  1581 ;  when  the  Prince  of  Orange  mduced 
the  States-Oeneral  to  make  a  formal  proclamation  of  it,  out  of 
revenge  for  the  furious  edicts  of  proscription  which  the  Court  of 
Spain  had  issued  against  him.  The  Prince,  however,  was  assas- 
sinated at  Delft  in  1664  ;^  and  the  Spaniards  took  advantage  of 
the  consternation  which  this  event  had  spread  amonff  ^  Con* 
federates,  to  reconquer  most  of  the  provinces  of  the  Caw  Couor 
tries.  The  general  Confederacy  languished  away  ly  degreea ; 
and  the  Union  of  Utrecht  was  the  omy  one  maintained  among 
the  Seven  Provinces.  This  new  republic,  which  waa  in  strict 
alliance  with  England,  not  only  made  nead  against  the  Spaniards, 
but  gained  a  considerable  increase  of  strong  l^  the  vast  num- 
bers of  refugees  from  the  diflerent  Belgic  provinces,  who  took 
shelter  there ;  as  well  as  from  France,  where  the  persecutios 
still  raged  violently  against  the  Protestants.  It  is  calculated 
that  after  the  taking  of  Antwerp  by  the  Prince  of  Ptana  in 
10B6,  above  a  hundred  thousand  of  these  fugitives  transported 
themselves  to  Holland  and  Amsterdam,  carrjring  with  them  th^ 
wealdi  and  their  industry. 

80* 


ourru  ▼!!. 
From  tU*  dale  Um  conumic*  of  dit  CoaMwrnto  StaiM  ia> 


evMMd  awry  day :  and  in  ISM  theT  flxtandsd  it  m  fiur  m  Indit 
■ad  dM  BMtem  8m«.  Th*  Dutch  India  Company  won  ootok* 
IfalMd  in  1608.   Boiidoi  iho  oxelnoiTo  commoico  of  ladUn,  wliieh 


UM  jmawnlood  to  thorn  by  (heir  chartor,  thoy  boeaaM  Ukowiso 
a  pofltieal  body,  nndor  tbo  Mveniffnty  of  the  Statoo^onoral  of 
Am  Unitod  Pravineoo.  Supportoo  by  a  formidable  marine,  they 
noqnlrod  vaat  inflnenoe  in  toe  Ea«t  by  their  conqneate  orer  th« 
Portagueeo,  whom  they  diepoiMMed  by  depfrees  of  all  their 
ptiDC^al  eetabliohmenta  in  India.  The  Spanwrdt,  (indinff  their 
ofttto  to  reduce  the  Conledemlee  by  force  of  arms  ineflectual, 
oot  on  loot  a  negotiation  at  Antwerp  (1600,)  under  the  media* 
tioB  of  France  and  England ;  in  conwquence  of  which,  a  truce 
ef  IwoIto  yean  was  concluded  between  ^pain  and  the  United 
nrovincee.  It  wae  chiefly  during  thii  time  that  the  Confede- 
latoo  extended  their  conunerce  over  all  parts  of  the  globe,  while 
diair  marine  daily  increased  in  strength  and  importance  ;  which 
aoon  raised  them  to  the  rank  of  being  the  second  maritime  power, 
and  gare  them  a  decisive  influence  over  the  political  anairs  of 
Burope. 

At  the  expiration  of  this  truce,  hostilities  were  renewed  with 
Spain.  The  Dutch  carried  on  the  war  for  twentv-five  vears 
with  great  glory,  under  the  auspices  of  their  Stadtholders, 
Ibarice  andHenry  Frederic,  Princes  of  Orange,  who  discovered 
mat  military  talents.  One  event,  which  proved  favourable  for 
tte  Republicans,  was  the  war  that  broke  out  between  France 
and  Spain,  and  which  was  followed  by  a  strict  allin  nee  between 
Fiance  and  the  States-General.  The  partition  of  the  Spanish 
Netherlands  was  settled  by  this  treaty ;  and  the  allied  powers 
antered  into  an  engagement  never  to  make  peace  or  truce  with 
bjpatn,  except  by  common  consent,  '^his  latter  clause,  however, 
did  not  prevem  the'States-Qeneral  from  concluding  at  Munster 
a  oeparate  peace  with  Spain,  to  the  exclusion  of  France  (1648.) 
By  tnis  peace  the  King  of  Spain  acknowledged  the  United  Pro- 
vineas  as  free  and  inmpendent  States ;  he  gave  up  to  them  all 
th;^  places  which  they  had  seized  in  Brabant,  Flanders  and  Lim- 
burg,  viz.  Bois-Ie-Duc,  Bergen-op-Zoom,  Brotla,  and  Maestricht ; 
aa  uso  their  possessions  in  the  East  and  West  Indies,  in  Asia, 
Aftka,  and  America.  The  closing  of  the  Scheld,  which  was 
granted  in  favour  of  the  United  Provinces,  entirely  ruined  the 
dty  of  Antwerp,  and  shut  out  the  Spanish  Netherlands  from  all 
maritime  commerce. 

The  feudal  system  of  the  Swiss,  which  had  originated  in  the 
fimxteenth  century,  acquired  a  new  importance  towards  the  end 
of  tihe  fifteenth,  %^  reason  of  the  success  of  the  oonfedentot  in 


■  CmMutf  StoiM  ia> 
•xtondad  it  m  ikr  M  India 


tdia  CompMY  WM 

eomiDMc*  of  Iniim  wbioli 

t«r,  they  bacMM  UkawiM 

r  of  the  Staiae^enenl  of 

•  formi<iehile  nerine,  they 

their  conqaeate  otot  the 

W  degieee  of  all  their 

le  Spaniard*,  findinff  their 

force  of  arme  ineiBectual» 

(1600,)  under  the  media* 

cquencie  of  which,  a  truce 

sen  ?pain  and  the  United 

ii  time  that  the  Confede* 

11  paru  of  the  globe,  while 

th  and  importance  ;  which 

the  second  maritime  power, 

ovef  the  political  anaira  of 

tilities  were  renewed  with 
war  for  twentv-five  vears 
:ea  of  their  Stadtholdere, 
of  Orangfe,  who  discovered 
trhich  proved  favourable  for 
broke  out  between  France 
by  a  strict  alliance  between 
lie  partition  of  he  Spanish 
aty ;  and  the  allied  powers 
o  make  peace  or  truce  with 
'^his  latter  clause,  however, 
from  concluding  at  Munster 
exclusion  of  France  (1648.) 
uiowledged  the  United  Pro- 
tes ;  he  gave  up  to  them  all 
Brabant,  Flanders  and  Lim* 
)om,  Breda,  and  Maestricht ; 
t  and  West  Indies,  in  Asia, 
5  of  the  Scheld,  which  waa 
ovinces,  entirely  ruined  the 
ipanish  Netherlands  from  all 

which  had  originated  in  the 
importance  towards  the  end 
iccess  of  the  oonfederatoa  in 


nuoD  yru   A.9.  MO-164a  m 

tiMir  WW  with  Ohubi  Duln  of  Bargaady.  TUi  prince,  who 
WM  of  n  hot  and  tofholent  apirit,  waa  conKtantly  occupied  with 
projaeti  ti  eonqoMt  Taking  advantage  of  th«)  ruinoua  atate  of 
Um  finueea  of  the  Aiehdoko  Sigiamnnd  of  Austria,  he  indueod 
him  to  aeO  him  the  tatritorioa  of  Brisgau  and  AlaMOi  with  the 
right  of  repuiehaae  (1649.)  Peter  de  Hagenbach,  a  gentleman 
or  Aiaaea,  vriio  had  been  appointed  governor  of  these  countries 
by  the  Doke,  had  oppressed  the  Auetrian  subjects,  and  hanned 
the  whole  neiriibouring  states;  especially  the  Swiss.  The 
eomplaints  which  were  made  on  this  score  to  the  Duke,  having 
only  rendered  Hacenbach  still  more  insolent,  the  Swiss,  with 
the  eoneorrence  of  several  states  of  the  Empire,  paid  down,  at 
Basle,  the  sums  stinulated  in  the  contract  for  repurchasing  the 
two  provinces ;  ana,  by  force  of  arm*  they  re-established  the 
Austrian  prince  in  the  possession  of  Alsace  and  Brisgau.  They 
even  went  so  far  as  to  institute  legal  proceedings  against  Hasen* 
baieh,  who  was  in  consequence  Iwheaded  at  Brisach  in  1474. 

The  Duke,  determined  to  avenge  this  insult,  assembled  an 
army  of  a  hundred  thousand  men,  with  which  he  penetrated 
through  Franche-Comt^  into  Switzerland.  He  was  defeated  in 
the  first  action,  which  took  place  at  Granson  (1476;)  aAer 
which  he  reinforced  his  troops,  and  laid  sieofe  to  Morat.  Here 
he  was  a^n  attacked  by  the  Swiss,  who  killed  eighteen  thou- 
sand of  his  men,  and  seized  the  whole  of  his  camp  and  baggage. 
The  Duke  of  Lorraine,  an  ally  of  the  Swiss,  was  then  restored 
to  thoee  states  of  which  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  had  deprived 
him.  This  latter  prince,  in  a  great  fury,  came  and  laid  aiese  to 
Nancv.  The  Swiss  marched  to  the  relief  of  this  place,  where 
they  fought  a  third  and  last  battle  with  the  Duke,  who  was  here 
defeated  and  slain  (1477.) 

These  victories  of  the  Swiss  over  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  one 
of  the  most  powerful  princes  of  his  time,  raised  the  fame  of  their 
arms ;  and  made  their  friendship  and  alliance  courted  by  the 
first  sovereigns  in  Europe,  especially  by  France.  Their  con- 
federacy, which  had  formerly  been  composed  of  only  eiadit  can 
tons,  was  augmented  by  the  accession  of  two  new  states,  Friburg 
and  Soleure,  which  were  enrolled  in  the  number  of  cantons. 

From  this  time  the  Swiss  were  no  longer  afraid  to  bredc  the 
ties  that  bound  them  to  the  Germanic  B<ray,  as  members  of  the 
ancient  kingdom  of  Arlos.  The  Diet  of  Worms,  in  1495,  'javinff 
granted  the  Emperor  Maximilian  succours  against  the  French 
and  the  Turks,  the  Swiss  alleged  their  immunities,  and  their 
alliance  with  France,  as  a  pretext  for  refusing  their  continge^it 
of  supplies.  This  demand,  however,  was  renewed  at  the  Diet 
of  Lindau,  in  1496,  which  required  them  to  renounce  their  alii* 


'rr^^tusrti 


wm 


m 


OBAmt  VII> 

anee  with  Fiance,  and  accede  to  the  Leutie  of  SwaUa ;  ai  abo 
to  aahmit  themselves  to  the  Imperial  Ghamberi  and  the  law  of 
the  public  peace ;  and  to  furnish  their  quota  for  the  support  <d 
that  Chamber,  and  the  other  contributions  of  the  Empire.  All 
these  demands  were  resisted  by  the  Helvetic  Body,  who  r^ard* 
ed  them  as  contrary  to  their  rights  and  privilc^ies.  Meantime 
the  Orisons  had  aOied  themsolves  with  the  Swiss,  in  order  to 
obtain  their  protection  under  the  existing  dilforences  between 
them  and  the  Tyroleae. 

The  Emperor  Maximilian  seized  this  pretext  for  making  war 
against  the  Cantons.  Being  desirous  of  vindicatinr  the  dignity 
of  the  Empire,  which  had  been  outraged  by  the  Swiss,  and  of 
avenging  the  insults  oflered  to  his  own  family,  he  stirred  up  the 
League  of  Swabia  to  oppose  them ;  and  attacked  them  in  diffo- 
rent  points  at  once.  Eijpt  battles  were  fought  in  succession,  in 
course  of  that  campaign ;  all  of  which,  with  one  solitary  excep* 
tion,  were  in  favour  of  Uie  Swiss,  while  the  Imperialists  lost  more 
than  twenty  thousand  men.  Maximilian  and  his  allies,  the  Swa- 
bian  League,  then  came  to  the  resolution  of  making  their  peace 
with  the  Cantons,  which  was  concluded  at  T-  '^le  (1499.)  Both 
parties  made  a  mutual  restitution  of  what  the '  «iad  wrested  from 
each  other;  and  it  was  agreed,  that  the  diffeic  dces  between  the 
Emperor,  as  Count  of  Tyrol,  and  the  Orisons,  should  be  brought 
to  an  amicable  termination.  This  peace  forms  a  memorable  era 
in  the  history  of  the  Helvetic  Confederacy,  whose  independence, 
with  regard  to  the  Oerman  Emperor,  was  from  that  time  con* 
sidered  as  decided ;  although  no  mention  of  this  was  made  in  ihe 
treaty,  and  altho^h  the  Swiss  stUl  continued  for  some  time  to 
request  from  the  Emperors  the  confirmation  of  their  immunities. 
Two  immediate  cities  of  the  Empire,  those  of  Basle  and  Schaufl^ 
hausen,  took  occasion,  from  these  latter  events,  to  solicit  their 
admission  into  the  Confederacy.  They  were  received  as  allies, 
under  the  title  of  Cantons  (1501 ;)  and  the  territory  of  Appenzel, 
which  was  admitted  in  like  manner  (1513,)  formed,  the  thirteenth 
and  last  Canton. 

The  alliance  which  the  Swiss  had  kept  up  with  France,  since 
the  reigns  of  Charles  VIL  and  Louis  aI.,  tended  greatly  to  se- 
cuire  the  independence  of  the  Helvetic  Body."  This  alliance, 
which  Louis  Xl.  had  made  an  instrument  for  hiuibling  the 
power  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  was  never  but  once  broken,  in 
the  reign  of  Louis  XII.,  on  account  of  the  Holy  League,  into 
which  the  Swiss  were  drawn  by  the  intrigues  of  the  Bishop  of 
Sion  (1513.)  The  French  were  then  expelled  from  the  Milan- 
ese territory  by  the  Swiss,  who  placed  there  the  Duke  Maximi- 
lian Sforza.'    It  was  in  gratitude  for  this  service,  that  the  duke 


ii'; 


League  of  Sw&Ua;  m  alio 

ial  Gaamber,  and  the  law  of 

sir  quota  for  the  mpport  of 

(butioBB  of  the  Empin.    All 

I  Helvetic  Body,  who  regard- 

B  and  privileges.    Meantime 

with  the  Swiss,  in  order  to 

[existing  diflforences  between 

this  pretext  for  making  war 

JUS  of  vindicating  the  dignity 

lutraged  by  the  Swiss,  and  of 

own  family,  he  stirred  up  the 

1 ;  and  attacked  them  in  wfft- 

were  fought  in  succession,  in 

rhioh,  with  one  solitary  excep* 

rhile  the  Imperialists  lost  more 

milian  and  his  allies,  the  Swa- 

lolution  of  making  their  peace 

Eluded  at  r^le  (1499.)     Both 

of  what  the  ■  *iad  wrested  fnm 

at  the  diffetc  dces  between  the 

the  Orisons,  should  be  brought 

8  peace  forms  a  memorable  era 

federacy,  whose  independence, 

eror,  was  firom  that  time  con- 

aention  of  this  was  made  in  the 

itill  continued  for  some  time  to 

mfirmation  of  their  immunities. 

lire,  those  of  Basle  and  Schaufl^ 

16  latter  events,  to  solicit  their 

They  were  received  as  allies, 

I  and  the  territoiy  of  Appenzel, 

er  (1513,)  formed,  the  thirteenth 

had  kept  up  with  France,  since 
iouis  iCl.,  tended  greatly  to  se- 
[elvetic  Body.^    This  alliance, 
instrument  for  humbling  the 
.  was  never  but  once  broken,  in 
rant  of  the  Holy  League,  into 
die  intrigues  of  the  Bishop  of 
then  expelled  from  the  Milan- 
placed  there  the  Duke  Maximi- 
!  for  this  service,  that  the  duke 


nsioD  yi.    A.  o.  14S3— 1648.  nUff 

ceded  to  the  Swiss,  by  a  treaty  which  was  concluded  at  Bask, 
the  four  bailiwicks  of  Lugano,  Locarno,  Men^io,  and  Yal- 
Maggie,  which  he  dismei^red  from  the  Milanois.  Though 
conquerors  at  the  battle  of  Novara,  the  Swiss  experienced  a  Mm- 
guinary  defeat  at  Marignano;  when  they  judged  it  for  their  in- 
terest to  renew  their  alliance  with  France  (1513.)  A  treaty  of 
Pfjpetual  peace  was  signed  at  Friburg  between  these  two  States 
(1516,)  which  was  soon  after  followed  by  a  new  treaty  of  alli- 
ance, concluded  with  Francis  L  at  Lucerne  (1621,)  and  regularly 
renewed  under  the  subsequent  reigns. 

The  chance  which  took  place  in  religion,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  extended  its  influence  to  Switzerland, 
where  it  kindled  the  flame  of  civil  discord.     Four  cantons,  those 
of  Zurich,  Berne,  Schaufl*hausen,  and  Basle,  renouncing  entirely 
me  Romish  faith,  had  embraced  the  doctrines  of  Zuingle  and 
Cdvin ;  while  two  others,  viz.  Claris  and  Appenzel,  were  divi- 
ded between  the  old  and  the  new  opinions.     The  Reformation 
havioff  likewise  found  its  way  into  the  common  bailiwicks,  the 
Catholic  Cantons  rose  in  opposition  to  it  (1531 ;)  denying  liber- 
ty of  conscience  to  the  inhabitants.    Hence,  a  war  arose  be- 
tween the  Cantons  of  the  two  religions ;  which,  however,  was 
terminated  the  same  year  by  a  treaty  of  peace,  guaranteeing  to 
such  parishes  within  the  bailiwicks  as  bad  embraced  the  new 
doctrines,  the  liberty  of  still  adhering  to  them.     The  same  revo- 
lution extended  to  Geneva,  whose  inhabitants  had  declared  so- 
lemnly in  favour  of  the  reformed  worship,  and  erected  themselves 
into  a  free  and  independent  republic  (1534.)     The  church  of 
Geneva,  under  the  direction  of  Calvin,  became  the  centre  and 
citadel  of  the  Reformation;  while  the  academy  founded  in  that 
city,  produced  a  vast  number  of  theologians  and  celebrated  scho- 
lars.   It  was  at  this  time  that  the  duke  of  Savoy  planned  the 
blockade  of  Geneva,  to  enforce  certain  ancient  rights  which  he 
daiiUed  over  that  city;  but  the  Bernese  espoused  the  cause  of 
the  Genevans,  in  virtue  of  the  treaties  of  common  citizenship 
which  subsisted  between  them.    This  Canton  having  entered 
mto  alliance  with  Francis  L,  declared  war  against  the  duke  of 
Savoy  (1636 ;)  and  in  less  than  three  months  took  from  him  the 
t*^  .?.  ^"*^  desirous  of  interesting  their  neighbours 

the  Fnbuigers  in  their  cause,  they  invited  them  to  take  posses- 
sion of  aU  those  places  that  might  suit  their  coQvenience ;  and 
it  was  on  this  occasion  that  the  city  of  Friburg  acquired  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  its  territory.  These  acquisitions  were  confirmed  to 
die  two  Cantons,  by  the  trea^  which  the  Bernese  conduded  at 
Lansanne  with  the  duke  of  Savoy  (1664.) 
Ute  German  Empire  from  time  to  time  renewed  its  preten- 


MB  oBAPTiftvn. 

lions  on  S^twUmd,  and  the  Imperial  CJiwalw  m^**  « 
occarionid  iuriwliction  over  one  or  other  of  the  CantoM.  We- 
SOtiationB  for  a  general  peace  having  commenced  at  Monster 
EdOsnabitfg,  the  thirteen  Cantons  sent  t^  "^"S^'Z^- 
to  watch  over  the  interests  of  the  Helvetic  Body  at  that  congress , 
and  they  obtained,  through  the  intervention  of  France  "Jd  S'''- 
den,  thit  in  one  of  the  articles  of  the  treatjr  it  should  be  deck- 
nHl,  that  the  city  of  Basle,  «d  the  other  Svvi8sC«mton8,w^^^ 
possession  of  fuU  liberty,  and  independent  of  the  Empire,  and 
in  no  respect  subject  to  its  tribunals. 

In  Italvl  the  authority  of  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  which  had 
silently  declined  during  the  preceding  ""^^unes,  languished 
more  and  more  under  the  long  and  feeble  reign  of  Frederic  III. 
At  length  it  was  reduced  to  the  mere  ceremony  of  coronation, 
and  the  simple  exercise  of  some  honorary  and  feudal  nghts,  such 
as  the  investitures  which  the  Imperial  Court  continued  to  grant 
to  the  vassals  of  Lombardy.     AK^ough  4h?>P«"'*l^,?°^7„V7j 
pUed  the  royalty  of  Italy,  which  was  considered  f  mdissokbly 
Suited  to  it,'nevertheles8  it  was  the  custom  that  the  Kinp  of 
Germany  should  have  themselves  crowned  separately.  Kings  ot 
Italy  at  Milan,  and  Emperors  at  Rome.    Frederic  m.,  haying 
had  certain  i^lsons  for  abiding  his  coronation  at  Milan,  recW 
from  the  hands  of  Pope  Nich^  V.,  n  his  own  caP»t«J.  t^«  **« 
cmwns  of  Italy  and  rfome.    Maximilian  I.,  being  prevented^ 
the  Venetians^rom  repairing  to  Italy  "«  coronation  (IfiO^) 
Zb  content  to  take  the  tUle  of  Emperor  Elect,  ^J^^h Jus  succe*- 
aors  in  the  Empire  have  retained  till  the  presen  time.    Charles 
V.  was  the  last  Emperor  to  whom  the  ^'^V^,^,^^^"'''^^ ^^'Z 
ministered  this  douSle  coronation  of  King  of  Italy  and  Emperor, 

•*  SX^^tlXg.  of  Naples,  the  Dukes  of  Milan  and  Uj. 
RepubUcs  01  VeniceTnd  Florence,  were  the  P™c|P|^F^«; 
S2t  shared  among  them  the  dominion  of  Italy  J»7^  *«  J "^ 
S^  fifteenth  ci^tury.  The  continual  wars  ^^"ch  »he^te8 
™d  with  each  other,  added  to  the  weakness  of  ^e  G«m«i 
S^srors,  encouraged  foreign  powers  to  form  Pl^ /  "gP": 
di«Sent  and  conquest  over  tfcese  %«^«5;  I^^^S!?  W 
France.  Charles  Vftl.,  Louis  XII.,  and  Francis  1.,  »«>  »way  w 
S;  for  conquesv  undenook  ^^r^^^^^f  ^.tli 


|i 


g^TthoulfflrC^^^^^ 

th^ntinentVf  Italy.    Ferdinand  the  Cathohc  deprived  the 

^TS,lringd2of Naples (IfiOO.)  Hi.«ioc««r,Ch«Ies 


■■HM 


rial  Chamber  umnped  an 
ither  of  the  CanUnu.  Ne- 
ng  commenced  at  Monster 
«nt  their  minister  or  en^oy 
retic  Body  at  that  congress ; 
mention  or  France  and  Swe- 
e  treaty  it  should  be  deck- 
her  Swiss  Cantons,  were  in 
pendent  of  the  Empire,  and 

eror  of  (Germany,  which  had 
ding  centuries,  languished 
feeble  reign  of  Frederic  III. 
ire  ceremony  of  coronation, 
irary  and  feudal  rights,  such 
ial  Court  continued  to  grant 
igh  the  Imperial  dignity  im- 
LS  considered  as  indissolubly 
e  custom  diat  the  Kings  of 
rowned  separately,  Kings  of 
ome.  Frederic  Al.,  haying 
coronation  at  Milan,  receivea 
.,  in  his  own  capital,  the  two 
[lilian  I.,  being  prevented  by 
dy  for  his  coronation  (1506,) 
^or  Elect,  which  his  succes- 
11  the  present  time.  Charles 
the  Pope,  Clement  VII.,  ad- 
f  King  of  Italy  and  Emperor, 

,  the  Dukes  of  Milan,  and  the 
e,  were  the  principal  povrers 
aion  of  Italy  towards  me  end 
tinual  wars  which  these  states 
^e  wealaiess  of  the  Oerman 
vers  to  form  plans  of  aggran- 
le  countries.  The  Kings  of 
,  and  Francis  I.,  led  away  by 
leveral  expeditions  into  Italy, 
»n  ihe  kingdom  of  Naples,  or 
tliwarted  in  their  schemes  by 
already  masters  of  Sicily-  aira 
t  also  to  extend  their  views  to 
nd  the  Catholic  deprived  the 
IfiOO.)  His  succeKior,  Charles 


nuoD  ru    A.  o.  1443—1648. 

v.,  wqpeUed  them  frran  the  Milanois,  and  oUiged  Francis  I.,  by 
the  treaties  of  Madrid  (lfiS6,)  Crmbray  (1529,)  and  Crepy 
(1544,)  to  give  up  his  pretensions  ..  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 
and  the  dutdiy  ofMilan.  From  this  time  the  Spaniards  were 
^e  predominating  uower  in  Italy  for  more  than  a  hundred  years. 

In  the  midst  of  uiese  revolutions  there  arose  three  new  prin- 
ciiwlities  within  that  kingdom ;  those  of  Florence,  Parma,  and 
Malta.  The  Republic  of  Florence  held  a  distinguished  rank  in 
Italy  during  the  fifteenth  century,  both  on  account  of  the  flour* 
ishing  state  of  its  commerce,  and  the  large  extent  of  its  teraitory, 
which  comprehended  the  greater  part  of  Tuscany,  and  gave  to 
this  RepuUic  the  means  of  holding  the  balance  between  the 
other  powers  of  Italy.  The  opulent  family  of  the  Medici  here 
exercised  a  high  degree  of  influence ;  they  ruled  not  by  force 
but  by  their  munificence,  and  the  judicious  use  which  they  made 
of  their  great  riches.  The  credit  and  popularity  of  the  Medici, 
excited  envy  and  persecution  against  them,  and  caused  them  to 
be  several  times  banished  from  Florence.  They  were  expelled 
from  this  latter  place  at  the  same  time  that  Pope  Clement  VII., 
who  was  of  this  family,  was  besieged  by  the  Imperialists  in  Rome 
(1527.)  That  Pontiff,  in  making  his  peace  with  Charles  V.,  ob« 
tained  his  consent  that  the  Medici  should  be  re-established  at 
Florence,  in  the  state  in  which  they  were  before  their  last  ban- 
ishment. The  Emperor  even  promised  the  Pope  to  give  Alex- 
'  der  de  Medici  his  natural  daughter  in  marriage,  with  a  consid- 
erable dowry.  The  Florentines,  however,  having  shown  some 
reluctance  to  receive  the  Medici,  their  city  was  besieged  by  the 
Imperial  army,  and  compelled  to  surrender  by  capitulation  ( 1530.) 

The  Emperor,  by  a  charter  dated  at  Augsburg  on  the  28th  of 
August  following,  preserved  to  the  city  of  Florence  its  ancient 
republican  forms.  Alexander  de  Medici  was  declared  govemor- 
in-chief  of  the  state ;  but  this  dignity  was  vested  in  himself  and 
his  male  descendants,  who  could  only  enjoy  it  according  to  the 
order  of  primogeniture.  He  was  authonzed,  moreover,  to  con- 
struct a  citadel  at  Florence,  by  means  of  which  he  afterwards 
exercised  an  absolute  power  over  his  fellow-citizens.  As  for 
the  ducal  dignity  with  which  the  new  Prince  of  Florence  was 
vested,  it  properly  belonged  to  the  dutchy  of  Parma,  in  the  king- 
dom of  Napuw,  which  ue  Emperor  had  conferred  on  him. 

Alexander  de  Medici  did  not  long  enjoy  his  new  honours. 
He  was  univenaDy  abhoned  for  his  cruelties,  and  assassinated 
by  Lorenio  de  Medici,  one  of  his  own  near  relations  (1537.) 
nu  succesaor  in  the  dutchy  was  Cosmo  de  Medici,  who  annexra 
to  the  territory  of  Florence  that  of  the  ancient  republic  of 
Sianna,  which  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  had  conquered,  and 


m 


oiArm  vn. 


eonfemd  <m  hi.  son  Philip  H.  in  muM  «f  *•  ^I*%2fwl 
ThfTlitter  Drince  being  demtous  of  seducing  Comno  from  Ms 
^SSnfPo^XndtheKinp:  oj. F?^;.^ ,f £  J^ 
SpSard.  wew  at  war,  granted  him  ^^'^'^^'^/JSi^ 
Winrw  oi  Sienna,  aa  a  mesne-tcnure  holding  of  the  crown  oi 
sSS  hv^T^f  "q«i«»»«°t  fo' *»»«  considerable  sums  which 
heTdKJed  tolharles  V,  while  he  was  carrying  onAe 
«e«  of  Sienna.  In  transferring  the  ^»f »?"  »°  *«  J^^ 
PhSip  reserved  for  himself  the  ports  of  Tuscany,  «««»»*" 
Port?  Eitole,  Orbitello,  Telemone,  Monte-Argentaro,  St.  Ste- 
r       T  „«^««   Piombino.  and  the  whole  island  of  Elba,  with 

Se  Dukes  of  Ferrara.  on  the  »«^ject  of  nrecedency.    T^^^^^ 

IS^T^edthem^^^^^^^  Vo^^  f^^l^^^t^ 

SSEn^Ts 0  Kia^ince  having  •^^^S'SpSS 
the  ]glanoi.  (l««i*«Jf X ^ ^hiShTSS  IdSS 
Sa  cSSrv"'fS^:  ^^Siie'S  of  Fr«icb8for«  ij 

£  EcSiartical  States  untU  1 645,  when  they  w«re  dmnM^ 


« 


ne  of  the  Emjm  (1M4.) 
edacing  Cosmo  from  his 
if  France,  with  whom  Ae 
die  inTestituie  of  the  ter^ 
holding  of  the  crown  of 
considerable  sums  which 

he  was  carrying  on  the 
Siennois  to  the  Duke, 
rts  of  Tuscany,  such  as 
klonte-Argentaro,  St.  Ste- 
rhole  island  of  Elba,  with 

the  same  treaty,  Cosmo 
mniards,  for  the  defence  of 

e  dignity  of  Grand  DukeS, 
d  risen  between  them  and 
of  precedency.    The  Pope 

0  Cosmo  the  title  of  Gmnd 
onours  (1569.)  The  Em- 
e  Pope  should  undertake  to 
lus  encroaching  on  a  n^t 
9  himself,  in  virtue  of  his 

1  which  this  affair  had  oc- 
me  and  the  Empire,  were 
r  Maximilian  II.  granted  to 
successor  of  Cosmo,  the  dig- 
that  he  should  acknowledge 
ot  of  the  Pope. 

iblics  which  the  Visconti  of 
m  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
I.    They  had  formed  a  de- 
intil  1612,  when  Louis  XII., 
iluiois  by  the  Allies  of  the 
iirrendered  by  the  Swiss  to 
im  to  them,  as  making  part 
ess  Matilda.    The  Emperor 
I  by  the  treatr  of  petL^  which 
icis  I.  took  uese  cities  again 
reconquered  the  dutchyof 
ing  also  been  expeUed  nom 
lin  got  roesession  of  FUraa 
aty  whidi  he  had  condnded 
ihment  of  Francis  Sfom  in 
it  continued  to  fbna  ]pait  of 
15,  when  they  were  ' 


mioD  in.    k.9. 1453~1648. 


SMI 


bend  from  it  hf  Paul  III.,  who  erected  them  intp  dutchies,  and 
cooiemd  them  on  hia  ion  Peter  Louis  Famese,  and  his  heiia* 
male  in  the  order  of  Drimogeniture ;  to  be  held  under  the  title 
of  fiefs  of  the  Holy  See,  and  on  condition  of  paying  an  annual 
tribute  of  nine  thousand  ducats. 

This  elevation  of  a  man  whose  very  birth  seemed  a  disgrace 
to  the  pontiff,  gave  universal  ofience.  The  new  Duke  of  Parma 
soon  rendered  himself  so  odious  by  his  dissolute  life,  his  crime* 
and  scandalous  excesses,  that  a  conspiracy  was  formed  against 
him ;  and  he  was  assassinated  in  the  citadel  of  Placentia  in 
1547.  Ferdinand  Gonzaga,  who  was  implicated,  as  is  alleged  in 
this  assassination,  then  took  possession  of  Placentia  in  name  of 
the  Emperor ;  and  it  was  not  till  1557  that  Pliilip  II.  of  Spain  le- 
stored  that  city,  with  its  dependencies,  to  Octavius  Famese,  son 
and  successor  of  the  murdered  prince.  The  house  of  Famese 
held  the  dutchy  of  Parma  as  a  fief  of  the  Ecclesiastical  States, 
until  the  extinction  of  the  male  line  in  1731. 

The  Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerasalem,  after  their  expulsioa 
from  the  Holy  Land,  had  retired  to  the  Isle  of  Cypms,and  frran 
thence  to  Rhodes,  in  1310,  of  which  they  had  dispossessed  the 
Greeks.  They  did  not  maintain  possession  of  this  p^e  longer 
than  1523,  when  Soliman  the  Great  undertook  the  siege  of 
Rhodes,  with  an  army  of  two  hundred  thousand  men,  and  a 
fleet  of  four  hundred  sail.  The  Knights  boldly  repulsed  the 
different  attacks  of  the  Turlu ;  but  l^ing  entirely  dependent 
on  their  own  forces,  and  receiving  no  succour  from  the  powers 
of  Christendom,  they  were  compelled  to  capitulate,  after  an  ob- 
stinate defence  of  six  months.  Leaving  Rhodes,  Uiese  Knights 
took  shelter  in  Viterbo,  belonging  to  the  States  of  die  Church, 
where  they  were  cordially  received  by  Pope  Clement  VII. 
There  they  remained  unUl  the  Emperor  Cnarles  V.  granted 
them  the  Isle  of  Malta,  which  became  their  principal  residence 
(1530.)  That  prince  ceded  to  them  the  islands  of  Malta  and 
GoBO,  with  the  city  of  Tripoli  in  Africa,  <m  condition  of  holdr 
ing  them  firom  him  and  his  successors  in  the  kuigdmn  of  Sidlj, 
as  noUe  fiefs,  frank  and  firee,  without  any  other  obligation  than 
the  annual  gift  of  a  fidcon,  in  acknowl»lgment  of  their  hoM? 
ing  under  the  crown,  and  presenting  to  the  King  of  Sicily  time 
of  Aeii  subjects,  of  wlunm  he  was  to  choose  one,  on  each  i^ 
caney  of  the  bishoiffie  of  Malta.  Charles  V.  added  nnntWur 
clause,  that  if  ever  the  Order  should  leave  Malta  and  fix  thttfer 
residattee  elsewhere,  that  island  should  revert  to  the  Kii^  0 
Sialj.  The  Kni^^ts  of  St  John  eontinned  in  the  sovereim4v 
of  lulta  and  Gono  till  1798;  but  they  lost  Tripoli,  in  1N| 
yidaeh  was  taken  ttma  them  bv  the  Turks, 

VOL.  I.  si 


inif 


MB  eaiPTiftTu. 

A  nMmonible  nrolution  happened  at  Genoa,  about  the  IxSffin* 
atef  of  the  sixteenth  century.  That  repuUic,  after  having  tor  a 
kng  time  fonr.«-i  part  of  the  dutchy  of  Milan,  leeorered  its  an> 
dent  independence  about  the  time  when  the  French  and  Span* 
iards  disputed  the  sovereignty  of  Italy,  and  the  conquest  of  the 
Mikinois.  Expelled  by  the  Imperialists  from  the  city  of  Oenoa 
in  1322,  the  French  had  found  means  to  repossess  it  (1527,)  with 
the  assistance  of  the  celebrated  Andrew  Doria,  a  noble  (Genoese, 
vrho  had  been  in  the  service  of  Fmncis  I.  This  distinguished 
admiral,  supplanted  by  favourites,  and  maltreated  by  the  court, 
abandoned  the  cause  of  France  in  the  following  year,  and  es- 
poused that  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 

The  Ftent-h  then  laid  siege  to  the  city  of  Naples,  which  was 
reduced  to  the  last  extremity,  and  on  the  point  of  surrendering, 
rrhen  Doria,  having  hoisted  the  Imperial  flag,  set  sail  for  Naples, 
Mrith  die  galleys  under  his  command,  and  threw  abundance  of 
provisions  into  the  besieged  city.  The  French  army,  now  cut 
off  irom  all  communication  by  sea,  soon  began  to  experience 
those  calamities  from  which  the  Imperialists  had  just  been  de- 
livered. Their  whole  troops  beine  destroved  by  famine  end  con- 
Spous  disease,  the  expedition  to  Naples  fell  to  the  ground,  and  the 
airs  of  the  French  in  Italy  were  totally  ruined.  It  is  alleged 
that  Charles  V.,  to  recompense  Doria  for  thio  important  service, 
ofiered  him  the  sovereignty  of  Genoa ;  and  that,  instead  of  ac- 
cepting this  honour,  that  great  man  stipulated  for  the  liberty  of 
his  country,  whenever  it  should  be  delivered  from  the  yoke  of 
France.  Courting  the  glory  of  being  the  liberator  of  his  native 
eity,  he  sailed  dir^tly  for  Genoa,  of  which  he  made  himself 
oiaster,  in«a  single  pight,  without  ahedding  one  drop  of  blood 
(10t8.)  The  Fsedch  garrison  ratind  to  the  citadel,  and  were 
•bHsed  to  capitulate  for  want  of  provisions. 

^niis  fxpedition  procured  Doria  the  title  of  Father  of  his 
Ooontry,  which  was  confemid  on  him  by  a  decree  of  the  Senate. 
It  was  by  his  advice  that  a  committee  of  twelve  persons  was 
chosen  to  organise  a  new  scheme  of  government  for  tne  republic. 
A  register  was  drawn  vp  of  all  those  fiunilies  who  were  to  com- 
poae  the  Grand  Connal,  which  was  destined  to  exercise  the 
adpnoM  power.  The  Doge  was  to  continue  in  office  ten  years ; 
aai  gnait  oiure  was  taken  to  remove  diose  causes  which  had  pre- 
ikmlj  ucited  ftctions  and  intestine  disorders.  Hence  the 
artaMnhment  of  the  Genoese  aiistoeraey,  whose  forms  have 
0ucm  been  preserved,  with  some  few  modifications  which  were 
bjNniwed  atftarwards,  in  consequence  of  certain  dissensiona 
ulrikh  had  arisen  between  the  ancient  and  the  new  nobili^. 

Venice,  dM  eldest  «f  the  European  lepablics,  had  raached  the 


at  Genoa,  aboat  the  IxSffiii* 
republic,  after  having  lor  a 
of  Bf  ilan,  recovered  its  an* 
hen  the  French  and  Span- 
ly,  and  the  conquest  or  the 
iits  from  the  city  of  Gknoa 
to  repossess  it  (1527,)  with 
Doria,  a  noble  C^noese, 
icis  I.  This  distinguished 
Ind  maltreated  by  the  court, 
the  following  year,  and  es- 
V. 

i  city  of  Naples,  which  was 

n  the  point  of  surrendering, 

9Tial  flag,  set  sail  for  Naples, 

nd,  and  threw  abundance  of 

The  French  army,  now  cut 

L,  soon  began  to  experience 

perialists  had  just  been  de- 

lestroyed  by  famine  and  con- 

)les  fell  to  the  ground,  and  the 

totally  ruined.     It  is  alle^d 

ia  for  thio  important  service, 

loa ;  and  that,  instead  of  ac- 

1  stipulated  for  the  liberty  of 

I  delivered  from  the  yoke  of 

ing  the  liberator  of  his  native 

,  of  which  he  made  himself 

•bedding  one  drop  of  blood 

tiled  to  the  citadel,  and  were 

ovieions. 

a  the  title  of  Father  of  his 
dm  by  a  decree  of  the  Senate, 
mittee  of  twelve  persons  was 
r  government  for  the  republic, 
le  fiunilies  who  were  to  com* 
tna  destined  to  exercise  the 
0  continue  in  office  ten  years ; 
e  those  causes  which  had  pre- 
rtine  disorder*.  Hence  the 
istocraey,  whose  forms  have 
BW  modifications  which  were 
aence  of  certain  dissensions 
lent  and  the  new  nobility. 
Mun  repablics,  had  reached  the 


ntioB  yu   A*9. 1483—1648. 


ffiutli  of  its  gieatneas  about  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  ceatory, 
TTie  TBst  extent  of  its  commeiee,  supported  by  a  poweilul  ni«f 
rine,  the  multiplied  sources  of  its  industry,  and  the  monopolv 
of  the  trade  in  the  East,  had  made  it  one  of  the  richest  and 
most  formidable  States  in  Europe.  Tasides  several  porta  on 
the  Adriatic,  and  numerous  settfemente  which  they  had  in  the 
ArchipeUgo,  and  the  trading  towns  on  the  Levant,  they  gained 
ground  more  and  more  on  the  continent  of  Italy,  where  they 
formed  a  considerable  territory.  Guided  by  an  artful  and  e«. 
terprising  policy,  this  Republic  seized  with  marvellous  avidity 
every  circumstance  which  favoured  its  views  of  aggrandizement. 
On  ie  occasion  of  their  quarrels  with  the  Duke  of  Ferrara,  they 
obtained  possession  of  the  province  of  Polesino  de  Rovigo,  by  a 
treaty  which  they  concluded  with  that  prince  in  1484. 

Afterwards,  having  joined  the  League  which  the  powers  of 
Italy  had  opposed  to  Charles  VIII.  and  his  projects  of  conquest, 
they  refused  to  grant  supplies  to  the  King  of  Naples  for  the  re- 
covery of  his  kingdom,  except  by  his  consenting  to  yield  up 
tlie  cities  of  Trani,  Otranto,  Bn'ndisi,  and  GallipoU.  Louis  XIL, 
being  resolved  to  enforce  his  claims  on  the  dutchy  of  Milan,  and 
wishing  to  gain  over  this  Republic  to  his  interest,  gave  up  to 
them,  by  the  treaty  of  Blois  (1499,)  the  town  of  Cremona,  and 
the  whole  country  lying  between  the  Oglio,  the  Adda,  and  the 
Fo.  On  the  deato  of  Pope  Alexander  VI.  (1603,)  they  took 
that  favourable  opportunity  of  wresting  from  the  Ecclesiastical 
States  several  towns  of  Komagna ;  among  others,  Rimiu  ^d 
Faenza. 

Of  edl  the  acquisitions  which  the  Venetians  made,  the  most 
important  was  tnat  of  Gyiqrus.  That  island,  one  of  the  most 
considerable  in  the  Mediterranean,  had  been  conquered  from  thf9 
Greeks  by. Richard  CoBur  de  Lion,  King  of  Eoglandi  who  sor* 
rendered  it  to  Guy  of  Lusignan  (1192,)  the  lisst  Jciug  of  Jeru- 
salem, in  compensation  for  the  loss  of  his  kingdom.  From  Ouy 
of  Lusignan  descended  a  long  line  of  Cypriot  kings ;  the  last  of 
whom,  John  III.,  left  an  only  daughter,  named  Charlotte,  who 
succeeded  him  in  that  kingdom,  and  eaua^d  her  husband,  Louis 
of  Savoy,  to  be  also  crowned  long.  There  still  remained  a  bM- 
tard  son  of  John  III.,  called  James,  who  was  protected  1^  the 
Sultan  of  Egypt,  to  whom  the  kinss  of  Cyprus  were  tributatifs, 
and  who  succe«ded  in  expelling  Charlotte  and  her  husband,  4hf 
Prince  of  Savoy,  from  the  throne  (1460.)  James,  wdto  was  de- 
sirous of  putting  himself  under  the  protection  of  the  V«u»ti«iMii 
mairied  Catherme  Comaro,  daughter  of  Marco  CorneiUs.  a  i»r 
trieian  of  Venice.  The  Senate,  in  honour  of  this  rawmfp, 
■d^ted  Catherine,  and  deelarcd  her  daughter  of  St.  mAhVf 


'iC 


Ikt  BMDUie.  JamM  died  in  147S,  iMTinff  «  PM^«n«»  «"' 
iHm  dtod  alM)  in  the  Mcond  y«u  of  hit  ■««.  .  Th»  MpuUie 
Ami  coMidering  the  kinodom  of  Cyfroi  as  their  own  inherit. 
•BM.  took  poewnion  of  the  natord  children  of  JomM,  end 
indtteed  Queen  Catherine,  by  Tirioua  meaiM,  to  retire  to  Venice, 
and  there  to  resign  her  cnmn  into  the  handa  of  the  Senate,  who 
uaisned  her  a  pension,  with  the  Castle  of  AmIo,  m  TwTieano, 
i^  her  residence;  and  obtained  for  themselTos  the  inresUture 
tg  that  island  from  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  (14flO.) 

A  career  so  prosperous  was  eventually  foUowed  by  a  reverse 
of  fortune;  and  several  circumstances  concurred  to  accelerate 
ths  decline  of  this  flourishing  republic.    They  received  a  ter- 
rible blow  by  the  discovery  of  the  new  passage  to  India  round 
the  Cape,  which  deprived  them  of  the  coinmerce  of  the  East; 
thus  dmng  up  the  principal  source  of  their  wealth,  as  well  as 
of  their  revenue  and  their  marine.    In  vain  did  they  put  in 
waetice  all  the  arts  of  their  policy  to  defeat  the  commercial  en- 
tanrises  of  the  Portuguese  in  India ;  excitinj?  against  them,  first 
S?Sultans  of  Egypt,  and  afterwards  the  furkish  Emperors. 
Mid  fiimishing  these  Mahometan  powers  with  supplies.    The 
activity  of  the  Portuguese  surmounted  all  these  obstacles.  They 
obtained  a  firm  setUement  in  the  East,  where  in  course  of  time 
they  became  a  very  formidable  power.    Lisbon,  in  place  of 
Venice,  became  the  emporium  for  the  productions  of  India  ;  and 
the  Venetians  could  no  longer  compete  with  them  in  this  field  of 
Eastern  commerce.    Besides,  the  good  fortune  which  so  long 
•ttmded  the  undertakings  of  the  republic,  had  mspired  them 
;Sf  a  passion  for  conquest.    They  took  every  opportunUy  of 
nuOcing^croachments  on  their  neighbours ;  uid  sometimes  for- 
grttinlthe  counsels  of  prudence,  they  drew  down  upon  them- 
S^the  jealousy  and  resentment  of  the  principal  States  ofltoly. 
To  this  iealou^  must  be  attributed  the  famous  L*a«ie,  which 
Ftoe  Julius  II.,  the  Emperor  Manmilian,  Loum  XU.,  Ferdinand 
rfBpain,  and  Several  of  the  Italian  States,  conckded  at  Cam- 
SaVaSbS  for  the  partition  of  the  Venetian  temtonr  on  Tef^ 
SSi.    Liuii  Xn.  gained  a  sigmjl  victory  over  tie  renubh- 
STiar  Agnadello,  ^ch  was  foUowed  by  such  a  rapiA  sue- 
2ari^f  cSquests.that  the  Senate  «>f  Vemcewere  sbmck wrth 
cMsternation ;  and  the  Republic  must  have  been  mfclbWy  lost, 
SSTlSSs  bJ^n  supported  K  his  allies.    But  the  Pof  «*  ^J 
Sng  of  Spain,  wfirdieaded  the  meponderence  of  the  French 
SSly.  sJSde^ly  abandoned  the  League,  and  ««fl«ded  jja- 
Mte  tritiesof  peace  with  the  republicans;  nor  was  the  Eb^» 
llSSUloiigrfolkming  their  example.  I»f»;«qu«iwof 
SaTdTveneSans,  after  having  been  menaced  with  •  total 


MTiof  •  potdramooi  Mm, 

hia  agv.    The  Reniblie 

la  u  their  own  iimerit* 

children  of  Jamee,  end 

meuis,  to  retire  to  Venieei 

hands  of  the  Senate,  who 

tie  of  Asolo,  in  TreTisano, 

themaeWes  the  inreatituie 

jrpt  (1490.) 

iiuly  followed  hy  a  rererae 

e«  concurred  to  accelerate 

>lic.    They  receiTed  a  ter^ 

ew  passage  to  India  round 

he  commerce  of  the  East ; 

of  their  wealth,  as  well  as 

In  vain  did  they  put  in 

>  defeat  the  commercial  en* 

;  excitintr  against  them,  first 

ds  the  Turkish  Emperors, 

owers  with  supplies.     The 

ed  all  these  obstacles.  They 

St,  where  in  course  of  time 

>wer.    Lisbon,  in  place  of 

e  productions  of  India  ;  and 

ete  with  them  in  this  field  of 

good  fortune  which  so  long 

epublic,  had  inspired  them 

y  took  every  opportunity  of 

l^hbours ;  and  sometimes  for* 

ney  drew  down  upon  them* 

ftbe  principal  States  of  Italy. 

)d  Ae  famous  League,  which 

ilian,  Louis  XII.,  Ferdinand 

I  States,  concluded  at  Cam* 

Venetian  territnvon  Terra 

al  victory  over  tne  republi- 

>llowed  by  such  a  rapid  sue* 

B  of  Venice  were  struck  with 

ost  have  been  inftJUbly  lost, 

lies.    But  the  Pone  and  the 

reponderance  of  me  French 

eagne,  and  concluded  aepa* 

licans ;  nor  was  the  Emperor 

example.  In  consequence  of 

been  menaced  with  •  total 


mwD  VI.    A.  9. 140^1648. 

frthraw,  loat  onhr,  in  eoorae  of  the  war,  the  tenitorr  of  Cf»- 
mona  and  Ohiera  a'Addm  with  the  dties  and  porta  of  Roawgna 
and  Apulia.  But  thia  lowms  lar  sorpaaaed  fy  that  vriiioh  tt«y 
experienced  in  their  finaneaa,  their  commerce  and  manufiketaraa, 
>^  on  account  of  the  expeaaive  eflbrta  which  they  wore  oUigod  la 
make  in  resisting  their  numerous  enemiea. 

The  ruin  of  this  Republie  was  at  length  completed  by  tha 
prodigious  increase  of  the  power  of  the  Ottomans,  who  took  from 
them,  W  degrees,  their  best  possessions  in  the  Archipelago  ajnd 
the  Mediterranean.  Dragved  as  it  were  in  spite  of  tJiemselvea, 
into  the  war  of  Charies  V.  against  the  Turks,  they  lost  foiu> 
teen  islands  in  the  Arehipekgo ;  among  others  Chios,  Pattnoa, 
JEgina,  Nio,  Stampalia,  and  Fbros;  and  were  oblLrad,  by  the 
peace  of  Constantinople  (1540,)  to  surrender  to  the  Turici  Mal- 
vasia  and  Napoli  di  Romagna,  the  mly  two  places  which  re- 
mained to  them  in  the  Motea. 

The  Turks  also  took  firom  them  the  isle  of  Cyprus,  the  fineat 
of  their  possessions  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  Sultan  Selim 
II.,  being  determined  to  conquer  that  place,  attacked  it  with  a 
superior  force  (1570,)  although  the  Venetians  had  ffiven  him  no 
nound  for  hostilities.  He  made  himself  master  of  the  cities  of 
Nicosia  and  Famagusta ;  and  completed  the  conquest  of  the 
whole  island,  before  the  succours  which  the  King  or  Spain  and 
the  Pope  had  granted  to  the  .Venetians,  could  Join  their  fleet 
On  the  approach  of  the  Christian  army,  die  Turkish  fleet  re- 
tired witnm  the  Oulf  of  Lepanto,  whent  they  were  attacked  by 
the  allies  under  the  command  of  Don  John  of  Austria,  a  natural 
son  of  Charles  V.  The  Christians  gained  a  complete  victory 
(1671.)  The  whole  Turkish  fleet  was  destri  yed,  and  the  Cob* 
federates  took  immense  booty.  The  news  o*  thk  defeat  struck 
terror  into  the  city  of  Constantinople,  and  mude  the  Grand  Sig* 
nior  transfer  his  court  to  Adrianople.  The  Chii?tians,  however, 
reaped  no  advantage  firom  their  victory.  A  uisunderstanding 
arose  among  the  Confederates,  and  their  fleeta  dispersed  without 
acconmlishing  any  thing.  The  Venetians  did  not  rotum  to  the 
isle  orCyprus ;  and  knowing  well  that  they  could  not  reckon  on 
any  efiectual  aid  on  thepart  of  their  allies,  they  determined  to 
make  peace  with  the  Turks  (1^3.)  By  this  treaty  they  left 
the  Porte  in  possession  of  Cyprus,  and  consented  to  pay  it  a  sum 
of  300,000  ducats,  to  obtain  the  restitution  of  their  ancient 
boundaries  in  Dalmatia.  From  this  epoch,  the  republic  of 
Venice  dates  its  entire  decay.  It  was  evident,  that  it  must 
thenceforth  resign  its  pretensions  as  a  leading  power,  and  adopt 
a  sjrstem  of  neutrality  which  might  put  it  in  condition  to  main- 
tain peace  with  its  neighbours. 

21* 


CBAVm  Tib 


Bmhad,  M  w  )u.y  mmtioiifld  akevtt  had  baan  Um  rival  tt 
PiaBMk  i^^ule  th*  ktter  now  beeaiM  the  riTal  cf  Austria.  Thia 
livalrjr  eommenead  with  the  marriaga  of  lla^iawlian  of  Aaatria, 
to  Matj,  danghter  and  heireM  of  Charlaa,  laat  Duke  of  Burf«n> 
^ ;  hf  which  die  houae  of  Auatria  raeeeeded  to  the  whole  do* 
minion*  of  that  Prince.  The  Low  Countries,  which  at  that 
4fane  wen  the  principal  enmorium  for  the  manufactures  and  corn* 
•Mice  of  Europe,  formea  a  part  of  that  opulent  succession. 
Louis  XI.,  King  of  Fraacoi  was  unable  to  prevent  the  marriage 
of  the  Austrian  Prince  with  the  heiress  of  Burgundy ;  hut  he 
to<^  advantage  of  that  event  to  detach  from  the  territories  of 
that  princess  whatever  he  found  convenient.  He  seised  on  the 
datchy  of  Burgundy  as  a  vacant  fief  of  his  crown,  as  well  as  the 
•eigniories  of  Auxerrois,  Maconnoia,  Bar-sur-Seine,  and  the 
towns  on  the  Somme ;  and  these  diflerent  countries  were  pre- 
served  to  France  by  the  treaties  of  peace  concluded  at  Arras 
(1488)  and  Senlis  (1403.)  Such  was  the  origin  of  the  rivalry 
and  bloody  wars  between  France  and  Austria.  The  theatre  of 
hostilities,  which,  under  Louis  XI.  had  been  in  the  Low  Coun- 
tries,  was  transferred  to  Italy,  under  Charles  VIII.,  Louis  XII., 
and  Francis  I.  From  thence  it  was  changed  to  Germany,  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  II. 

"in  iMy,  besides  this  rivalry  between  the  two  powers,  there 
was  another  motive,  or  pretext,  for  war,  viz.  the  claims  of  Fmnce 
on  die  kingdom  of  Naples  ant'  the  dutchy  of  Milan.  The  claim 
of  Louis  aI.  on  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  had  devolved  to  him 
with  the  county  of  Provence,  which  he  inherited  in  virtue  of  the 
will  of  Charles,  Count  of  Provence,  and  the  last  male  descen- 
dant of  the  house  of  Anjou  (1481.)  Charles  VIII.,  the  son  tud 
soccessor  of  Louis  XL,  urged  on  by  youthful  ambition,  was  de- 
termined to  enforce  this  claim.  He  undertook  an  expeditien 
into  Italy  (1494,)  and  took  possession  of  the  kingdom  of  Najriea 
without  striking  a  blow.  But  being  opposed  by  a  formidable 
eonfederacy  of  the  Italian  princes,  with  Miuumilian  at  dieir  head, 
he  was  obliged  to  abandon  his  conquests  with  the  fiame  facility 
he  had  made  them ;  and  he  was  fortunate  in  being  able  to  efl^t 
his  retreat,  by  the  famous  victory  which  he  gained  over  the  al- 
lies near  Foronuovo,  in  the  dutchy  of  Parma. 

The  claim  to  the  dutchy  of  Milan,  was  founded  on  the  con- 
Must  of  marriage  between  Louis,  Duke  of  Orleans,  the  grandfa- 
ther of  Louis  XIL,  and  Valentine  of  Milan.  That  contract  pro- 
vided, that  failing  heirs-male  of  John  .G^leas,  Duke  of  Milan, 
the  dutchy  should  fall  to  Valentine,  and  the  children  of  her 
aarrifi.ge  with  the  Duke  of  Orleans.  Louis  XII.  claimed  the 
lights  of  Valentine,  his  grandmother,  in  opposition  to  the  princes 


!▼«,  had  bMB  Um  rivtl  of 

rival  •fAostrb.    Tbia 

of  Matwrilian  of  Aaitria, 

loo,  last  Duke  of  Burgwi- 

luceeeded  to  the  whole  do- 

Coontriea,  which  at  that 

the  manufactures  and  com' 

f  that  opulent  succeMion. 

|bl«  to  prevent  the  marriage 

irese  of  Burgundy ;  hut  be 

h  from  the  territoriee  of 

venient.    He  seized  on  the 

of  his  crown,  as  well  as  the 

is,  Bar-sur-Seine,  and  the 

iflerent  countries  were  pre- 

f  peace  concluded  at  Arras 

as  the  origin  of  the  rivalry 

id  Austria.     The  theatre  of 

had  been  in  the  Low  Coun- 

Charles  VIII.,  Louis  XII., 

as  changed  to  Germany,  in 

veen  the  two  powers,  there 
ar,  viz.  the  claims  of  France 
utchy  of  Milan.  The  claim 
'Naples,  had  devolved  to  him 
he  inherited  in  virtue  of  the 
e,  and  the  last  male  descen- 
Charles  VIII.,  the  son  and 
y  youthful  ambition,  was  de* 
He  undertook  an  expeditien 
on  of  the  kingdom  of  Najrfes 
ling  opposed  by  a  formidable 
'ith  Maximilian  at  tlieir  head, 
quests  with  the  name  facility 
rtunate  in  being  able  to  efiect 
vhich  he  gained  over  the  al« 
of  Parma. 

an,  was  founded  on  the  con- 
Kike  of  Orleans,  the  grandfa- 
if  Milan.  That  contract  pro- 
ohn  Galeae,  Duke  of  Milan, 
ae,  and  the  children  of  her 
ns.  Louis  XII.  claimed  the 
tr,  in  opposition  to  the  princes 


ntioD  ru   A.9.  lUft— 164& 

of  tha  frraily  of  Sfana,  who  had  talm  poswaeiou  of  tha 
datchy  of  Ifilan,  on  tha  extiaotioB  at  tko  nuJa-hain  of  tha 
Viwooti,  which  huMBod  in  1447.  The  diflntnt  anaditioni 
whkh  ha  andoitook  into  Italy,  botk  far  tha  ooaqoeat  of  Milan 
and  tha  kingdom  of  Nules,  mat  with  no  batter  ■oeeaoe  than 
that  of  hia  prodaoeMor  nad  dona;  in  consoqtienee  of  a  new 
League,  called  the  SUu  Lmgut,  which  Pope  Juliua  II.  raised 
against  him,  and  into  which  he  drew  the  Emperor  Bfaximilian, 
the  Kings  of  Arragon  and  Engbind,  with  tha  Venetians  and  the 
Swiss.  Louis  XII.  lost  all  the  advantages  of  his  conquests. 
The  kingdom  of  Naples  fell  under  the  power  of  Feidinand  the 
Oatholic,  and  the  family  of  Sforza  were  reinstated  in  tha  dutchy 
of  Milan. 

These  Italian  wan,  which  were  renewed  at  difleient  times 
under  the  reign  of  Francis  I.,  cost  France  much  Mood  and  im- 
mense sums.  In  this  struggle  she  was  forced  to  succumb,  and 
Francis  I.  bound  himself,  by  the  treaty  of  Crepy,  to  abandon  his 
chums  on  Italy  in  favour  of  Charles  V.    The  kingdom  of  Na- 

Sles  and  the  dutchy  of  Milan  remained  incorporated  with  Uie 
Ipanish  monarchies.  Francis  I.,  nevertheless,  hod  the  glory  of 
arresting  the  pro^ss  of  his  rival,  ond  eflectually  counterbnhn* 
cing  a  power  which,  at  that  time,  made  all  Europe  tremble. 

Henry  II.,  the  son  and  successor  of  Francis  I.,  adopted  a  new 
line  of  policy.  He  attacked  the  House  of  Austria,  in  Germany ; 
having  entered  into  a  league  with  Maurice,  Elector  of  Saxony, 
and  the  Protestant  princes  of  the  Empire,  to  oppose  Charles  V. 
That  league,  which  was  ratified  at  Chambord  (1662,)procured 
fot  Henry  II.  possession  of  the  bishoprics  of  Metz,  Toul,  and 
Verdun ;  and  he  even  succeeded  in  forcing  the  Emperor  to  raise 
the  siege  of  Metz,  which  that  prince  had  undertaken  about  Uie 
end  of  the  year  1552.  A  truce  of  five  years  was  agreed  on  be- 
tween these  two  sovereigns  at  Vaucelles ;  but,  in  the  course  of 
a  few  months,  the  war  was  renewed,  and  Philip  II.,  who  had 
succeeded  his  father,  Charles  V.,  induced  his  queen,  Mary  of 
England,  to  join  in  it.  Amonff  the  events  of  this  war,  the  most 
remarkable  are  the  victory  of  St.  Quentin,  gained  by  the  Span- 
iards (1557,)  and  the  conquest  of  the  city  of  Calais,  by  Francis, 
Duke  of  Guise ;  the  last  possession  of  the  English  in  France 
(1558.)  The  death  of  Queen  Mary  prepared  the  woy  for  a 
peace,  which  was  signed  at  Chateau-Cambresis  (1559,)  between 
Prance,  England,  and  Spain.  The  Duke  of  Savoy  obtained 
there  the  restitution  of  his  estates,  of  which  Francis  I.  had  de- 
prived him  in  1536.     Calais  remained  annexed  to  France. 

A  series  of  \vars,  both  civil  and  religious,  broke  out  under  the 
feeble  reigns  of  the  three  sons  and  successors  of  Henry  II.    The 


♦ 


mg  OUmBTII. 

wMaUm  WM  miide  the  pnlMCt    Fimneii  U.  teTing  mmmm 

ySe  BOwmSnt  pMMd  into  the  huds  of  Fnuicto,  Duko  of 
Oii£.Sythn3 JtaSdo  Lomuno. hk  broihw.  who  wwo tho 

iSteothw Louii. Princo of  Con<W,  who im^inod that th« PW' 
eSienoy  in  thii  re«peet  wm  duo  to  them  m  P^mw  of  *•  W*^' 
iTSSiince  to  A?Lor«ine  family,  who  might  be  con«^de»d 
M%Mn«en  in  France.  The  fonner  being  C«»l»«>i-»^«'; 
hLHnJ«li.ted  dlthe  le«ler.  of  that  party  in  Afi'-^S**;  i^TS 
notSkult  for  the  Lorraine  prince,  to  .ecuie  the  interest  of  aU 
the  mo«t  sealoua  Catholiee.  .    ^^^. 

The  tot  epark  that  kindled  the«»  ciril  wan,  wm  the  cowp^ 
«cy  of  AmlSise.  The  intention  of  ^•^"•'"^^'•J'jr^^ 
23o  the  Guiws.  to  bring  them  to  trial.,and  throw  ^en«»S|P' 
moTt  of  aflair-  into  the  Uu  of  the  pn«ce.  of  the  blo«d.  The 
conepiraey  having  been  ditcovered.  the  pnnce  of  Cond«,  wtoo 
X  .a.pJcted  of  leing  at  it.  he«i,  wa.  ane.ted ;  f%^J^} 
hTre  belTexecuted.  ^  not  the  premature  death  of  Fnmci.  11. 
happened  in  the  meantime.  The  queen-mother,  Cayenne  de 
Iiabci,who  wa.  intrusted  with  the  regency  during  «J«nu»;'2 
ofCharie.  IX..  and  derirou.  of  holding  the  Wa""  J*J?^  £• 
two  partie*.  w  Conde  at  liberty,  and  grantedthe  C*l^»»"«*  »• 
ft-*  V«»^iM  of  their  reliirion,  in  the  .uburb.  and  part,  lying 
J^ofX  Stil  Tlu?  Sio.;.  edict  (Jwuary  16«rocca.ion. 
3  the  Sit  ciS  war,  the  .ignal  of  which  wa.  the  ma»acre  of 

''•Si^re^'iZTere  have  been  conunonly  rcckone^ jii^t 

K«?  wiS  IheM"  .  .SJ";re  of  St.  Bartholomew,  authorized 

and  directed  by  the  King  (1672),  p-,;*,-. 

It  is  of  «om/ importance  to  notice  here  t^lf  »^«/  J^ 
tian.  of  Henrv  III.,  of  the  month  of  May  1676.  Ihe  new  pnj 
X;,Sh?c?iiis  edict  granted  to  the  CalvinisU,  enccmraged 
SeSuiae.  to  form  a  league  this  same  year.  o»tens  Wv  for  tho 
m^ntewmce  of  the  Catholic  religion,  but  ''J^^f  ""^fe^ 

Z  dethronement  of  the  reigning  dyn-^'y;  *"J.J»«  ^i'J^Srlu 
the  Ouiws.     The  Duke  of  Alenson,  only  brother  of  Hennr  UJ.. 
Sinff  dead  and  the  King  of  Navarre,  who  professed  the  Ctd' 
SiffSh!  haZ  became  presumptive  heir  to  the  crow,,  the 
^ef.  of  the  Cathofic  League  no  longer  made  a  secret  of  then 


•  faedoM  which  diitneMd 
«iiiM  of  hoUiUtiM,  theofh 
uieit  n.  halting  MpooMd 
irtioU  poim  Mid  Mthotity 
Mnds  of  Fnneit,  Dnk«  of 
,  hU  brathw,  n^o  wwtUM 
f  which  Umm  noblemen  en- 
my,  King  of  Nnmne,  end 
who  iniitffined  that  tlM  pre- 
tern  H  pnnee*  of  the  blood, 
r,  who  might  be  comideied 
mer  being  CalTiniste,  nnd 
t  DMty  in  their  cauee,  it  wm 
to  secure  the  interest  of  all 

,  clril  Wirt,  wm  the  eonepi- 
of  the  conipintora  wm  to 
rial,  and  throw  the  n»>ia|m- 

Srinces  of  the  blood.  The 
te  prince  of  Cond<,  who 
inn  arretted  j  and  he  would 
(mature  death  of  Francis  II. 
queen-mother,  Catherine  de 
regency  during  the  minority 
ling  the  balance  between  the 
id  granted  the  CalvinisU  the 
the  suburbs  andparU  lying 
lict  (January  1682)  occMion- 
[  whidh  WM  the  massacre  of 

ft  commonly  reckoned  eiffht 
ir  in  the  reign  of  Charles  lA., 
he  fourth,  under  Charles  IX., 
'  St.  Bartholomew,  authorized 

:e  here  the  Edict  of  Paci/ka- 
)f  May  1676.  The  new  pri- 
to  the  Cttlvinists,  encouraged 
same  year,  ostensibly  for  the 
ion,  but  whose  real  object  was 

dynasty,  and  the  elevation  of 
on,  only  brother  of  Henry  III., 
arre,  who  professed  the  Cti- 
umptire  heir  to  the  crown,  the 

longer  made  a  secret  of  then 


rauoD  Ti.    A.  ».  14(0—1648. 

mMfone.  They  eooeluded  a  formal  alliance  (15S4,)  with  Plulip 
II.  of  Spain,  for  eaekiding  the  Bourbons  from  the  throne  of 
France.  Henry  HI.  wm  obliged,  by  the  Leaguers,  to  recom- 
mence the  war  against  the  CalTinisto ;  but  peroeiTing  that  the 
Duke  of  Quise,  and  the  Cardinal  his  brother,  took  every  occa- 
sion to  render  his  government  odious,  he  caused  them  both  to  be 
assMsinated  at  Blois  (IflBB,)  and  threw  himself  on  the  protec- 
tion of  the  King  of  Navarre.  In  conjunction  with  that  Princo, 
he  undertook  the  itiese  of  Paris,  during  which  he  wiw  himself 
MSMsinatod  at  St.  Cloud,  by  a  Jacobin  of  the  name  of  James 
Clement  (168B.)  . 

The  dynasty  of  Valois  ended  with  Henry  III.,  after  havmg 
occupied  the  throne  for  two  hundred  and  sixty-one  years.  Under 
this  dynasty  the  royal  authority  had  gained  considerably,  both 
by  the  annexation  of  the  great  fiefs  to  the  crown-lands,  and  by 
the  introduction  of  regubr  armies,  which  put  an  end  to  the  feu- 
dal power.  Louis  Xl.  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  bringing  the 
grandees  ur''-»r  subjection,  and  putting  an  end  to  the  cruelties 
and  oppressions  of  anarchy.  If  these  chonges,  however,  contri- 
buted to  public  order,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  the  national 
liberty  eufrered  by  them ;  thot  the  royal  authority  daily  received 
new  augmentations ;  and  that,  so  early  as  the  reign  of  Lou  is  XII., 
it  was  considered  m  high  treason  to  speak  of  the  necessity  of 
usembling  the  States-Generak  The  practice  of  these  assemblies, 
however,  was  renewed  under  the  successors  of  that  prince ;  they 
even  became  frequent  under  the  last  kings  of  the  house  of  Valois, 
who  eonvoksd  tb«m  chiefly  with  the  view  of  demanding  supplies. 
Francis  I.  augmented  his  influence  over  the  clergy  by  (he  con- 
cordat which  he  concluded  with  Leo  X.  (1516,)  in  virtue  of 
which  he  obtained  the  nomination  to  all  vacant  prelatures ;  leav- 
ing to  the  Pope  the  confirmation  of  the  prelates,  and  the  liberty 
of  receiving  the  annate. 

The  race  of  Valois  was  succeeded  by  that  of  the  Bourbons,  who 
were  descended  from  Robert  Count  of  Clermont,  younger  son  of 
St.  Louis.  Henry  IV.,  the  first  kingof  this  dynasty,  was  related 
in  the  twenty-first  degree  to  Henry  III.,  his  immediate  predeces- 
sor. That  prince,  who  wm  a  Calvinist,  the  more  eMily  reduced 
the  party  of  the  League,  by  pui:licly  abjuring  his  religion  at  St. 
Denis.  He  concluded  a  peace  with  the  Spaniards,  who  were 
allies  of  the  League,  at  Vervins ;  and  completely  tranquilliied 
the  kingdom  by  £e  famous  edict  of  Nantes,  which  he  published 
in  fitvour  of  the  reformed  religion.  By  that  edict  he  guaranteed 
to  the  Protestant*  perfect  liberty  of  conscience,  and  the  puWc 
exercise  of  their  worship,  with  the  privilege  of  filling  all  offlcei 
of  tnut :  hat  he  xendered  them,  at  the  same  time,  a  piece  of  dit> 


iJiti'    ! 


OBAPTBK  TIL 


MTfiee,  Vy  gnuitmg  them  forfeited  placM,  under  the  name  of  j^lacM 
of  Meority.  B^  thus  fostering  a  spirit  of  puty  and  intestine 
ftctioB,  he  furnished  a  plausible  pretext  to  their  adversaries  for 
giadualhr  undermining  the  edict,  and  finally  proseribmg  Uie  ex« 
ercise  of  the  rdfimned  reliffion  in  France. 

_  That  great  prince,  after  having  estabUshed  the  tranquillity  of 
his  kingdom  at  home  and  abroad,  encouraged  arts  and  manufac- 
tures, and  put  the  administration  of  his  finances  into  admirable 
order,  was  assassinated  by  Bavaillac  (1610,)  at  the  very  moment 
when  he  was  employed  in  executing  the  grand  scheme  which  he 
had  projected  for  the  pacification  of  Europe.  Cardinal  Richelieu, 
when  he  assumed  the  reins  of  government  under  Louis  XIII., 
had  nothing  so  much  at  heart  as  the  expulsion  of  the  Calvinists 
from  their  strongholds.  This  he  accomplished  by  means  of  the 
three  wars  which  he  waged  against  them,  and  oy  the  famous 
siege  of  Rochelle,  which  he  reduced  in  1628.  That  great  states- 
man next  employed  his  policy  against  the  house  of  Austria,  wh>  >  ? 
preponderance  gave  umbrage  to  all  Europe.  He  took  tbe  op- 
portunity of  the  vacant  succession  of  Mantua  to  espouse  the  cause 
of  the  Duke  of  Nevers  against  the  Courts  of  Vienna  and  Mad- 
rid, who  supported  the  Duke  of  Guastalla ;  and  maintained  his 
proteg^  in  the  dutchy  of  Mantua,  by  the  treaties  of  peace  which 
ytiua  concluded  at  natisbon  and  Querasque  (1631.)  Having 
afterwards  joined  Sweden,  he  made  war  against  the  two  branches 
of  Austria,  and  on  this  occasion  got  possession  of  the  places  which 
the  Swedes  had  seized  in  Alsace. 

Louis  XIV.  was  only  four  years  and  seven  montha  old  when 
he  succeeded  his  fether  (1643.)  The  queen-mother,  Anne  of 
Austria,  assumed  the  regency.  She  appointed  Cardinal  Ma- 
zarin  her  prime  minister,  whose  adnunistration,  during  the 
minority  of  the  King,  was  a  scene  of  turbulence  and  distrac- 
tion. The  same  external  policy  which  had  directed  the  minis- 
try of  Richelieu,  was  followed  by  his  successor.  He  prose- 
cuted the  war  against  Austria  with  vigour,  in  conjunction  with 
Sweden,  and  their  confederates  in  Germany.  By  the  peace 
which  v/as  concluded  with  the  Emperor  at  Munster,  besides 
the  th\ee  Inahc^rics  of  Lorraine,  France  obtained  the  Land- 
graviate  of  Lower  and  Upper  Alsace,  Sungaw,  and  the  pre- 
Mctare  of  the  ten  Imperial  cities  of  Alsace.  Spain  was  ex- 
cluded fir««i  this  treaty ;  and  the  vrar  continued  oetween  that 
kingdom  and  France  until  the  peace  of  the  Pyrenees,  by  which 
the  counties  of  RomaaiUon  and  Conflans  were  ceded  ^France, 
as  wdl  as  several  cities  in  Fkndera,  Hainault,  and  Luxemboorg. 

Apain,  which  had  long  been  divided  into  several  Stalea,  and 
a  itrisnger  as  it  were  to  the  rest  of  Europe,  became  all  of  a  rod* 


Wi 


»mmmm 


icM,  under  ihe  name  of  yluM 
spirit  of  party  and  intestine 
stezt  to  tneir  adTersarieB  for 
id  finally  proaeribing  the  ex- 
^rance.  .„.       , 

fltablished  the  tranqmlhty  of 
ncooraged  arts  and  manufac- 
f  his  finances  into  adniiiable 
ic  (1610,)  at  the  Tery  moment 
a  the  grand  scheme  which  he 
Europe.  Cardinal  Richelieu, 
rermnent  under  Louis  XIII., 
3  expulsion  of  the  CalviniBts 
xomplished  by  means  of  the 
it  them,  and  by  the  famous 
in  1628.    That  great  states- 
t  die  house  of  Austria,  who  ^ 
I  Europe.    He  took  the  op- 
Mantua  to  espouse  the  cause 
B  Courts  of  Vienna  and  Mad- 
Juastalla;  and  maintained  his 
>y  the  treaties  of  pace  which 
Querasque  (1631.)    Having 
B  war  against  the  two  bmnches 
possession  of  the  places  which 

rs  and  seven  months  old  when 
The  queen-mother,  Anne  of 
She  appointed  Cardinal  Ma- 
ge adnunistration,  during  the 
sne  of  turbulence  and  distrBc- 
•which  had  directed  the  minis- 
by  his  successor.    He  prose- 
ith  vigour,  in  conjunction  with 
I  in  Germany.     By  the  peace 
I  Emperor  at  Munster,  besides 
e,  France  obtained  the  Land- 
(Usace,  Sungaw,  and  the  pre- 
ss of  Alsace.     Spain  was  ex- 
lie  war  continued  oetween  that 
Mace  of  the  Pyrenees,  bjr^wbich 
Conflans  wore  ceded  >o  France, 
era,  Hainault,  and  Losamhoiirg. 
divided  into  several  Stataa,  sad 
of  EuNpe,  became  aU  of  a  lad' 


ntioB  yi.    A.  0. 1409—1640. 

den  a  formidable  power,  turning  the  politieal  balanee  in  her  own 
favour.  This  elevatimi  was  the  work  of  Ferdumad  the  Catholic, 
a  priaoe  bora  for  great  eiqiloits ;  of  a  profound  and  fertile  geniot ; 
but  taraishinff  his  bright  qualities  by  perfidy  and  unlxranded 
ambition.  He  was  heir  to  the  throne  of  Arragon,  and  laid 
the  foundation  of  his  greatness  by  his  marriage  with  Isabella 
(1469,)  sister  to  Henry  VI.  last  Kinff  of  Castillo.  That  match 
united  the  kingdoms  of  Castillo  and  Arragon,  which  were  the 
two  principal  Christian  States  in  Spain.  Henry  of  Castille  had 
left  a  daughter,  named  Jane,  but  sne  being  considered  as  illegi- 
timate by  the  Castillians,  the  throne  was  conferred  on  Isabella 
and  her  husband  Ferdinand  (1474.)  The  Infanta  Jane,  in  order 
to  enforce  her  claims,  betrothed  herself  to  Alphonso  V.  King  of 
Portugal ;  but  that  prince  being  defeated  by  Ferdinand  at  the 
battle  of  Toro  (1476,)  was  obliged  to  renounce  Castille  and  his 
marriage  with  the  Infanta. 

At  me  accession  of  Isabella  to  the  throne  of  Castille,  that 
kingdom  was  a  prey  to  all  the  miseries  of  anarchy.  The  abuses 
of  the  feudahsyst^m  were  there  maintained  by  violence  and  in- 
justice. Ferdinand  demolished  the  fortresses  of  the  nobles  who 
infested  the  country ;  he  gave  new  vigour  to  the  laws ;  liberated 
the  people  from  the  oppression  of  the  great ;  and,  under  pretence 
of  extii^ting  the  Jews  and  Mahometans,  he  established  the 
tribunal  of  the  Inquisition  (1476,)  which  spread  universal  terror 
by  its  unheard  of  cruelties.  Torquemada,  a  Dominican,  who 
was  appointed  grand  Inquisitor  (1483,)  burnt  in  the  space  of  four 
years  near  6000  individuals. 

The  Moors  still  retained  the  kingdom  of  Grenada.  Ferdinand 
took  advantap"  of  their  dissensions  to  attempt  the  conquest  of  it, 
in  which  he  ....cceeded,  after  a  vigorous  war  of  eighteen  years. 
Abo  Abdeli,  the  last  King  of  Grenada,  fled  to  Africa.  An  edict, 
which  was  published  immediately  after,  >rd<)red  the  expul- 
sion of  all  the  Jews ;  about  an  hundred  thousand  of  whom  fled 
from  Spain,  and  took  shelter,  some  in  Portugal,  and  others  in 
Africa.  Ferdinand  did  not  include  the  Moors  in  this  proscrip- 
tion, vriiom  he  thought  to  gain  over  to  Christianity  by  means  of 
persecution ;  but  having  revolted  in  the  year  15O0,  he  then  al- 
lowed them  to  emigrate.  It  was  this  blind  and  headlong  zwd 
that  procnred  FenOnand  the  title  of  the  CatMolie  Sng,  which 
Pqie  Alexander  HI.  conferred  on  him  and  his  successors  (14K3.) 
Tfwt  prince  also  au^ented  his  power  by  annexing  to  his  crown 
the  Grand  Maatersmp  of  di«  Mililary  Cndan  of  Calatmva,  Al* 
cantAia,  and  St  Jamea  of  Cmupoatella. 

Every  thing  eonspived  to  anniidiia  Fetdinand ;  and  as  if  tha 
OU  World  had  not  been  Mmcient,  a  New  one  was  opened  to 


^ 


ttinn  Td* 


Hi, 

if" 


Inee  of  anna ;  bo  that  notting  wn  ^"^^fi,,   /«»„-  which 
mite  aU  Spain  under  his  dominion.    The  ™>\Vf'.?^%';  f„. 

he  Aould  indce  common  ««»  ^^'i^^^^M^fer.  w^^^^  to 
League  ««""*  ?;:«X^  nrescS  Si  so  severe,  that  he 
pieserre  neutrahty,  ^«y,P'?'?"no  Jeek  nrotection  in  France. 

S?ided  between  the  two  "^^if  ^ J^dr  resSve  boundarieT^ 
«H,n  quarrelled  with  Lou«m^^^^^^^^  ^^^^  Naples. 

SScrwT^CSi  to  tS^jL^-h  monarchy,  in  ^e  year. 

''STi^i'^f  Austria,  ^^-^j^;^:^^:rk7iz 

•or  in  .the  Spanish  monarchy,  added  to  ^^^^^\  ^^,  ,f 
Countries  and  F«nche.Comto,  wmcnne  u 

•^^'H^^'uto^  ^JfSlS^^jSEJJSLd  POT, 

gundy.    He  added  Wtewise  »««  »»'8  .     ,       f  juji^  jn  Italy, 
5a  thi  continent  of  A«}enca,  wd  Ae  dutehj^ol  »  ^ 

in  which  he  invested  his  son  Ph  1^»™'  f^"»  "***      ' 

S^   BU«dedbyhisjnim««ty^i«^^ 

iHlbg  passion  for  war,  he  ^'^i;^''^^  Ae  Spanish  mo- 


icUy,  and  Saidinit.    He 
Mge,  and  of  Granada  by 
BnSnR  except  Navane  to 
The  Holy  League,  which 
St  Louis  Xn.  (1611.)  fur. 
that  kingdom.    Entenng 
mcexted  with  the  King  of 
•h  the  English  had  some 
the  King  of  Navane  that 
th  theses  of  the  Holy 
ince,  however,  wishing  to 
onditions  so  severe,  that  he 
seek  protection  in  France, 
of  all  that  part  of  Navarre 
velve  years  before  that  tune 
snada,  planned  with  Louis 
r  Naples.    Frederic  of  Ar- 
igdom,  and  his  States  were 
n  i  but  Ferdinand  having 
their  respective  boundaries, 
I  the  French  from  Naples, 
ish  monarchy,  in  \he  ye»" 

r  Ferdinand,  and  his  succes- 
[ed  to  that  crown  the  Low 
ch  he  inherited  in  right  of 
i  gnmdmother  Mary  of  Bur- 
i^oms  of  Mexico  and  Feru, 
le  dutchy  of  Milan  in  Italy, 
,,  after  having  repeatedly  ex- 
SandlSSd. 

1  he  derived  from  his  wars 
lied  the  greater  part  of  his 
minst  that  Prince,  and  bv  his 
Austed  his  kingdom,  si^  nn- 
ies  resigned  the  Spanish  mo- 
then  comnrdiended  the  Low 
lee,  SicUy  and  Sardinia,  die 
poasesriona  m  Amenia.  The 
UhlMip n.  Mgned m  16», 
oaT  be  iMaided  as  the  eia  ot 
"JlShTSeleftbimbyW. 

iofFert«fri.withUielW 
md  AMwfea  J  but  this  waa  tb« 


nuoo  ▼!.    A. ».  1413— 164B.  Ml 

tennination  of  his  prosperity.  Hu  reign  alUv  that  waa  only  « 
succession  of  misfortunes.  Hia  revoltiiig  deiootism  exdted  the 
Belgians  to  insurrection,  and  gave  birth  to  the  republic  of  the 
United  Provinces.  EUiabeth  of  England  having  joined  wyk 
the  Confederates  of  the  Low  Countries,  Philip,  out  of  revenge, 
equipped  a  formidable  fleet,  known  W  th'  name  of  the  Jnvt«c*> 
Me  Armada,  which  was  composed  of  1'  0  essels  of  enormous 
size,  manned  with  20,000  soldiers,  exclurivr  of  sailors,  and  mm- 
ed  with  1360  meces  of  cannon.  On  entering  the  Channel  they 
were  defeated  ay  the  English  (21st  of  July  1^,)  and  the  greater 
part  of  them  destroyed  by  a  storm. 

From  this  calamity  may  be  dated  the  decline  of  the  Spaniak 
monarchy,  which  was  exhausted  by  its  expensive  wars.  Philip, 
at  his  death,  left  an  enormous  debt,  and  the  whole  glory  of  the 
Spanish  nation  perished  with  him.  The  reigns  of  his  feeble 
successors  are  only  remarkable  for  their  disasters.  Philip  III. 
did  irreparable  injury  to  his  crown  by  the  expulsion  of  the  Mooia 
or  Morescoes  (1610,)  which  lost  Spain  nearly  a  million  of  her 
industrious  subjects.  Nothing  can  equal  the  misfortunes  which 
she  experienced  under  the  reign  of  Philip  IV.  During  the  war 
which  he  had  to  support  against  France,  the  Catalans  revolted, 
and  put  themselves  under  the  protection  of  that  Cnwn  (1640.) 
Encouraged  by  their  example,  the  Portuguese  likewise  shook 
off  the  yoke,  and  replaced  the  House  of  Braganza  on  Uwir 
throne.  Lastly,  the  Neapolitans,  harassed  by  the  Duke  d'OH* 
varez,  prime  minister  of  rhilip  IV.  revohed,  and  attempted  to 
form  themselves  into  a  republic  (1647.)  These  reverses  on  the 
part  of  Spain  added  to  the  number  of  her  enemies.  The  Jhmous 
Cromwell  having  entered  into  an  alliance  with  France  (1655,) 
dispossessed  the  Spaniards  of  Jamaica,  one  of  their  richest  8et« 
tlements  in  America. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  Portugal  had  reach- 
ed a  high  pitch  of  elevation,  which  she  owed  to  the  astonishing 
progress  of  her  navigation  and  her  commerce.  John  II.,  whose 
fleets  first  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  augmented  the  royal 
authority,  by  humUing  the  exorbitant  and  tyrannical  power  of 
the  grandees.  In  the  diet  which  was  assemued  at  Evora,  he 
retracted  the  concessioiu  which  his  predecessors  had  made  to 
the  nobles,  to  the  prejudice  of  the  Crown.  He  abolidied  4lie 
power  of  life  and  death,  which  the  lords  exereiaed  over  their 
vassals,  and  subjected  their  towns  and  their  territories  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  officers  app«nnted  b^  the  Kin^.  The  noblea,  wbf^ 
were  displeased  at  these  innovations,  having  combined  in  da- 
fence  of  their  privile^s,  and  chosen  the  Duke  of  Braganaa  fbr 
their  leader,  Jonn,  without  being  discmnccrtcd  by  Uiia  oppoaitaoBf 

▼«ki.  tt 


V  A  A-  nnW  1«nurlit  to  a  ttW^and  his  head  cut  off,  wWle  hi* 
S^ih^i-tS?"  SteT^T^Ms  example  of  severity  mtum- 
i^  ♦l?!rS3K  MdSde  them  submit  to  his  authority. 
^jitbSiTeW'^of  pSugal  WM  that  of  Emm«»^  and 

^^:£'e^Xl^:^'!!i^'oS'no.  remain,  but 

%hf  liorv  of  Portugal  suffered  an  eclipse  under  the  feeble 
«SYsKan!graTdson  and  i-^f^^  •"'^Xe'/yts; 
?g;  Prince,  who  came  to  ^e  J^one^i  *«  .'g^a  Jf^^^^^ 
had  been  brought  up  ^7  the/e8"'«^  T^  »"/^^^^  y^  thi 

him  in,  the  important  "ts  f  gove^nmem  ha<^^^      ^  ^^^^ 


Sf^Sr*,  ^"  "^"ll^JSe  avLrK^yTa^^^^^^  ^«'«8'^^ 

higher  classes;  while  avarice,  mru^^        their  colonies  in- 

on^a  u;'  -.  .^al  conupuon.    The  goy«n>°!!J*^  ^Vl^  -eized  the 

dulgei  ^  all  srrts  of  vioJence  anl  ^nJ^-^'^^V/aitTnoKe^ 

which  was  no  where  more  terrible  than  at  <«»•  A  ^  ^^    . 


lis  head  cut  off,  wlule  hb 
xsmple  of  severity  intimi" 

sulnnit  to  his  authority. 

jt  that  of  Emmanuel  and 

rears  1496  and  15ff7.     It 

Portuguese  formed  their 
nothing  now  remains  but 

eclipse  under  the  feeble 
nediate  successor  of  John. 

at  the  age  of  three  years, 
who  instead  of  instructing 
nent,  had  given  him  the 
ispired  him  with  a  dislike 
itachment  for  the  crusades, 
laving  requested  his  assist- 
liad  dethroned  him,  Sebas- 
ica  in  person,  carrying  with 
oody  battle  was  fought  near 
78,)  where  the  Portuguese 
tian  was  slain ;  and,  what  is 
Moluc  died  a  natural  death 
hornet  was  drowned  in  the 

every  thing  had  fallen  into 
ion  had  begun  to  degenerate, 
istinguished  them,  wm  ex- 
3,  which  even  infected  the 
iry,  and  effeminacy,  brought 
ivemors  of  their  colonies  in- 
injustice.  They  seiaed  the 
lerce.  The  military  force, 
had  kept  up  in  India,  was 
w  whole  wealth  of  the  colo- 
»  by  means  of  the  Inquisition, 
than  at  Goa.] 

aairied,  the  throne  passed  at 
is  grand  uncle  by  the  lather  s 
I  in  life.  Perceiving  his  end 
I  involve  the  kingdom  in  con- 
>f  the  States  at  Lisbon  (IflT?,) 
rh«  States  appointed  etovga 
tigate  the  cktuns  of  th«  dilfe* 
lifip  n.  of  Spain,  who  wm  «» 
BMt  regard  to  the  decisioo  of 


nftios  yu    A.  D.  1483—1648. 

the  States.  No  sooner  had  he  kamedtht  death  of  Henry  (1060,) 
than  he  sent  the  Duke  of  Altai  »t  th«  bead  of  an  army,  to  take 
possession  of  Portugal.  The  Duke  &feated  the  troops  of  his 
opponent,  ^thony  prior  of  Crato,  «me  of  the  cUimants,  who 
had  prockumed  himself  kinff ;  pretending  that  he  was  the  legiti- 
mate  son  of  the  Infant  Don  Louis,  son  of  Sminanuel.  Anthony 
had  no  other  alternative  left  than  to  take  shelter  in  France,  and 
the  whole  of  PortU£^  yielded  to  the  yoke  of  the  Spaniards. 

An  inveterate  antipathy,  however,  subsisted  between  the  two 
nations,  which  made  the  Portuguese  detest  their  Spanish  mas- 
ters. This  hatred  was  still  more  increased,  on  account  of  the 
losses  which  the  Portuguese  sustained,  in  the  meantime,  in  their 
commerce  and  possessions  in  the  East  Indies.  The  lucrative 
traffic  which  the  Confederates  in  the  Low  Countries,  called  the 
Dutch,  carried  on  by  im^rting  the  merchandise  of  the  East 
from  Portugal,  and  nawlung  them  over  the  north  of  Europe, 
having  enabled  them  to  support  the  war  against  Spain,  Philip  11. 
thought  to  strike  a  fatal  blow  at  their  prosperity,  by  forbidding 
them  all  commerce  with  Portugal. 

That  Prince,  however,  was  deceived  in  his  expectation.  The 
Confederates,  deprived  of  this  lucrative  branch  of  their  industry, 
and  after  having  made  some  unsuccessful  attempts  to  find  a 
north-west  passage  to  India,  tdok  the  resolution  of  sailing  direcdy 
thither  (1595,)  under  the  conduct  of  Cornells  Houtmon  and 
Molinoor,  in  order  to  sook,  at  the  founlaia-head,  those  commodi- 
ties which  were  refused  them  in  Portugal.  No  sooner  had  they 
attempted  to  form  settlements  in  India  than  the  Portuguese  de- 
termined to  prevent  them,  and  fouriit  with  them,  near  Bantam, 
a  town  in  Java,  a  naval  battle,  miich  ended  in  favour  of  the 
Confederates. 

Encouraged  by  this  first  success,  the  Dutch  undertook  to  de- 
prive the  Portuguese  of  their  princimd  possessions  in  Ihdia. 
The  conquest  which  diey  made  of  the  Moluccas,  procured  them 
the  spice  tmde.  They  likewise  formed  settlements  in  the  island 
of  Java,  where  they  founded  the  city  of  Batavia,  which  became 
Uie  capital  and  emporium  of  their  settlements  in  India.  At 
length  Gba  and  Diu  were  the  only  places  that  remained  to  the 
Portuguese  of  dieLr  numerous  possessions  in  India.    These  im- 

S>rtant  losses  weatly  exasperated  the  Portuguese  against  the 
paniards.  Whet  added  still  more  to  their  resentment  was, 
that  in  the  court  of  Madrid  they  saw  a  premeditated  design  to 
make  vassals  of  the  Portuguese ;  and  to  cut*off  the  most  Okdy 
means  of  enabling  them,  sooner  or  later,  to  recover  their  aneioit 
independence,  u  was  with  this  view  that  their  army  and  thdr 
mame  were  disorganized,  their  crown  revenues  diss^patedi  their 


Brtflity  wwduded  from  the  mwiweiMnt  of  •flkiw,  and  th«  M- 

dttennuMa  tbe  "^3*^ .  ^f  ^^  grandees,  m  concert 

^rZ^^rS^SWhkTioke  outon  the  1st  Decern- 

tme  and  lemtimate  hewess  » J^  "'"""  ti^ed  to  the  repos- 
the  Cardinal,  »»«  5«*^*f M J'^it^SJeriad  been  unjustly 
„«don  of  thoje  riliit.  «i7^*^K  wSSish  himsilf  on 
.toprivedby  the  SpanMJju  JJ^^^J^^S'^th  France,  the 
4he  thnme,  John  concluded  ^^^  ^/^Z^^ .  but  confining 
Srit«l  Provinces  the  NeA«l«J»t  •^J^^wed«.^^  ^  g 
Us  wholeamh^hontoinamtamu^gAe  ttcwmii^  ^  ^^^^ 


ntwD  yu    A.9. 1488^1648. 


S07 


mt  of  affiiin,  and  th*  iM« 
ntt. 

ppened  in  1640,  at  langth 
ff  the  Spanish  yoke.    A 
}f  the  grandees,  in  concert 
>ke  out  on  Uie  1st  Decern- 
eight  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
of  about  four  hundred,  re- 
lace  of  Lisbon,  where  the 
)wager  of  Mantua,  resided, 
State,  who  exercised  the 
ngdom.     Part  of  them  dis* 
e  others  sei2ed  Vasconcel- 
11  a  sacrifice  to  the  public 
m  of  the  vice-queen,  and 
lult  or  violence.     The  con- 
(  of  Braganza  King,  under 
rrived  at  Lisbon  on  the  6th 
ook  place  on  the  15th.     It 
volution  became  general  in 
:onfined  merely  to  Portugal, 
ca.    Every  wnere  the  ror- 
d  proclaimed  the  Duke  of 
ifrica,  was  the  only  town  of 
I)  retain  possession, 
•ect  line  nrom  Alphonso,  na- 

0  was  created  Duke  of  Bra- 
King  of  Portugal,  on  his  ac- 
le  an  assembly  of  the  States 
icknowledge  nis  right  to  the 
( the  fundamental  laws  of  the 

daughter  of  the  infant  Don 
[  John,  having  become  the 
throne  on  the  death  of  Henry 
V.  was  entitled  to  the  repos- 
it  princess  had  been  unjustly 
tetter  to  establish  himself  on 

1  of  peace  with  France,  the 
,  and  Sw^en ;  but  confining 
the  ancient  limits  of  the  king- 
ictive  with  regard  to  Spun, 
Koo*  enemiea,  waa  quite  in- 
ith  Tigoor  agatnat  Portugal. 
Prince  bad  entered  into  with 
xepablkanafroio  ctrntinuing 


thtir  eonotteats  in  India ;  where,  in  procaaa  of  tinie,  thay  atiqp- 
ped  the  Fortugueae  of  tluir  fineat  aottlmnenta. 

Bnriand,  Ions  before  thia  time,  had  aniMged  firom  the  atate  of 
ttu'oaMnee  and  desolation  into  whidi  aha  had  been  plungad  by 
•  the  deatmctiTe  wars  of  the  two  Rosea.  A  new  fimuly,  that  of 
tlw  Tudors,  had  moanted  the  throne;  Henry  VH.,  who  waa  ita 
founder,  claimed  the  crown  in  right  of  his  mother  llaigaret 
Beaufort,  alle^  heireas  of  the  house  of  Lancaster,  or  the  Red 
Rose ;  and  raised  an  insurrection  against  Richard  IIL,  the  last 
King  of  the  House  of  York.  This  prince  being  defeated  and 
shun  at  the  battle  of  Bosworth  (1485,)  Henry,  who  was  then 
proclaimed  Kin^  of  England,  united  the  titles  or  claims  of  the 
two  Roses,  by  his  marriage  with  Elinbeth,  daughter  of  Edward 
IV.,  and  heiress  of  York,  or  the  White  Rose.  The  country  be* 
ing  thus  restored  to  tranquillity  after  thirty  years  of  civil  war, 
every  thing  assumed  a  more  prosperous  appearance.  Agricul- 
ture and  commerce  began  to  flourish  anew.  Henry  applied 
himself  to  the  restoration  of  order  and  industry.  He  humbled 
the  factious  nobles,  and  raised 'the  royal  authority  almost  to  a 
atate  of  absolute  despotism. 

The  reformatiom  of  religion  in  England  began  in  the  reig|n  of 
his  son  Henry  VIII.  That  Prince,  who  was  of  a  very  capriciooa 
character,  vacillating,  continually  between  virtue  and  vice,  ap- 
peared at  first  as  the  champion  of  Popery,  and  publiAed  a  treatise 
against  Luther,  which  proctfred  him,  from  the  Court  of  Rome, 
the  title  of  Defender  of  the  Faith.  But  a  violent  passion,  which 
he  had  conceived  for  Aane  Boleyn,  having  induced  him  to  attempt 
a  divorce  from  Catherine  of  Arragon,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  the 
Catholic,  he  addressed  himself  for  this  purpose  to  Pope  Clement 
VII.,  alleging  certain  scruples  of  conscience  which  he  felt  on  ac- 
count of  his  marriaee  with  Catherine,  who  was  within  the  de- 
Sees  of  affinity,  prohibited  in  the  sacred  Scriptures.  The  Pope 
ing  afraid  to  di^lease  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  who  was  tfw 
nephew  of  Catherine,  thought  proper  to  defer  judnnent  in  thia 
matter ;  but  the  King,  impatient  of  delay,  caused  his  divorce  to 
be  jMonounced  by  Thomas  Cranmer,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
{loSZ,)  and  immediately  married  Anne  Boleyn. 

The  sentence  of  the  Archbishop  was  annulled  by  the  Pope, 
whopublished  a  threatening  bull  against  Henry.  This  incen^ 
the  King,  who  caused  the  Faprad  authority  in  England  to  be  abro- 
gated by  the  Parliament,  and  installed  hunself  in  the  capacity  of 
supreme  head  of  the  English  Church  (1534 ;)  a  title  which  was 
conferred  on  him  by  the  dergy,  and  confirmed  by  the  Parliament. 
He  also  introduced  the  oath  of  supremacy,  in  virtue  of  which  ail 
who  were  employed  in  offices  of  trust,  were  obliged  to  acknow* 

22* 


intr 


'Mi  tmArmm. 

klMkiiAMbMulofUMChttich.  A  court  of  High  Comnujiimi 
wJettaUished.  to  judge  occlosiMUcia  «*««"J"  ,"«|?.f  *• 
Idnt.  nd  from  whoio  iwrtmco  Uiere  wut  iw  tppoul.    The  con- 

•utdl  to  Iho  crown  (15a6-lfidJ.)  Hennr  erro  bwame  a  dogmj- 
Zfai theology;  and di«atfding the imnciplet of Uther, m well 
Mthose  of CilTin  and  Rome, he  framed  a  religion  according  to 
Ua  own  fimcy.  Rejecting  the  worAip  of  ima«8,  rehce,  purm- 
S^tToS  TOW.  and  Ike  supreinacT  of  thel'ope.  h*  g«ve  J^^s 
,i2-^<m,  by  the  law  of  the  Six  Articles,  to  the  doctrine  of  Ae 
real  piesence,  the  communion  in  one  kiiul,  the  row  of  chaJ'^T; 
Sr<5ibacy  of  the  priests,  the  mass,  and  auricular  confession  j 
SSgSry  sererS  penalties  on  all  who  should  deny  or  di«.bev 

one  or  other  of  these  articles.  ,.  i  i  •       4u.i 

^Is  monarch,  who  was  the  first  of  the  EnAsh  km«  thai 
took  the  title  of  Kipg  of  Ireland  (1642,)  was  »n^°»^«<» '"  ^«^: 
puu,.  which  then  embroiled  the  ContinentaJ  nowers ;  but  in»u»d 
!f  holding  the  balance  between  France  and  Austria,  he  adhered 
in  genemi  to  his  friend  and  ally  Charles  V.  apinst  Franco 
ThSTconduct  was  regulated  less  by  nolitics  than  by  V^^^^^ 
the  personal  interest  of  his  minister  fcardinal  Wo  W,  w^m  the 
BmJ«ror  had  attached  to  his  cause,  by  the  hope  of  the  I«P?^  J»"; 
•Ae  religion  which  Henry  had  planted  in  England,  did  not 
eonttaurafier  his  death.    EdwarJ  VI..  his  son  and  immediate 
SSSSorrStroduced    pure  Calvinism    or    Presbytenanism. 
KTSugLr  of  Henry  VIII.,  y^CaX^^nne  of  Amgon^n 
her  ^cession  to  the  throne,  restorecfthe  Catholic  «1'P0"  (16^:> 
sad  likewise  received  the  new  legate  of  the  Pope  mto  England. 
She  inflicted  great  cruelties  on  the  Protestants,  n^any  of  whom 
were  burnt  at  the  stake;  among  others,  Cranmer    Archbshop 
«f  f!«nterb«nr    and  the   Bishops  of  London  and  Worcester. 
WiA  ttJl;  orlle  firmly  establishing  the  CathoUc  re  igjon 
iaSr  dlinions,  she  espouid  PhUip, presumptive  he"  to  the 
Spanish  monarchy  (1664.)   The  restrictions  with  which  theEj^- 
SK  Parliament  fettered  his  contract  of  mamage  with  the  Queen, 
wduJKed  that  prince,  that,  finding  himself  without  power  or 
"Sty,  he  speeiily  withdrew  from  England.    M'^'Y  "  «£» 
Ued  oSy  five  years':  she  was  succeeded  by  her  sister  El™- 
Crth  (1668.)  daughter  of  Henry  VIII.,  by  Anne  Bole>^.    This 
SfadisWJe  mo?e  abrogated  the  auUiority  of  the  tope.  ^ 
SSned  to  herself  the  supreme  admmistration,  both  spintua^ 
STt^  poral,  within  her  Ugdom.     Though  she  adopted  the 
cSviS  principles  in  every  thing  regarding  the  doctrme.  of 
Se  Church;  she  retained  many  of  the  Bom.sh  ceremonies,  and 
Z  gSSient  of  Bishops,  'it  was  this  that  gave  rise  to  the 


coort  of  High  ComraiMiM 
fttuM  in  name  «f  the 
no  KppMl-  Tlie  con- 
I  and  thoir  roTmaea  confia* 
try  aT«n  became  a  dogma- 
sildea  of  Lntlier,  aa  well 
led  a  religion  according  to 
Ip  of  images,  relict,  pnrn- 
S.J  of  the  rope,  he  gave  bia 
Icles,  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
[kind,  the  row  of  chastity, 
I  and  auricular  confession ; 
rho  should  deny  at  disobey 

of  the  Eni^lish  kings  thai 
(,)  was  involved  in  me  dis- 
nental  powers ;  but  instead 
;e  and  Austria,  he  adhered 
Iharles  Y.  against  France, 
olitics  than  by  passion,  and 
!ardinal  Wolsey,  whom  the 
r  the  hope  of  the  papal  tiara, 
intod  in  England,  did  not 
''I.,  his  son  and  immediate 
lism  or  Presbyterianism. 
Catherine  of  Arragon,  on 
he  Catholic  religion  (16fi3,) 
e  of  the  Pope  into  England. 
E'rotestants,  many  of  whom 
lers,  Cranmer,  Archbishop 
)f  London  and  Worcester, 
tishing  the  Catholic  religion 
lip,  presumptive  heir  to  the 
fictions  with  which  the  Eng- 
}f  marriage  with  the  Queen, 
\g  himself  without  power  or 
im  England.  Mary's  reign 
:eeded  by  her  sister  Eliza* 
[I.,  by  Anne  Boleyn.  This 
luthority  of  the  Pope,  and 
[ministration,  both  spiritual 
Though  she  adopted  the 
regarding  the  doctrines  of 
be  Romish  ceremonies,  and 
IS  this  that  gave  rise  to  the 


MBIOD  Tl.     A.  •.  1413—1646. 

diMtaedM  WfPMD  tlM  A^IMw  ISfA  Chunk,  tnd  the  (W- 


Aboot  the  time  iHmb  Um  High  Clraidi  party  roae  in  Enghwd, 
•  chang*  of  feligion  took  plaee  in  SeoUand,  protaeted  by  Queen 
Blinbetli.  The  regmqr  of  that  kingdom  was  then  vested  in 
the  Qoeaiii^oiwafnr,  Marjr  of  Lorraine,  the  widow  of  Jamea  V., 
and  mother  of  Mary  Stuart,  Queen  of  Scotland  and  France. 
That  princeaa,  who  was  pfuided  solely  by  the  councils  of  her 
brothers  of  Lorraine,  had  introduced  a  body  of  French  troopa  to 
repress  the  followers  of  the  new  doctrines,  who  had  formed  a 
new  league,  under  the  name  of  the  Congregation,  These,  re- 
inforced by  the  Catholic  malecontents,  who  were  apprehensive 
of  falling  under  a  foreign  yoke,  took  Uie  resolution  of  applying 
for  assistance  to  the  English  Queen,  which  it  was  by  no  means 
difficult  to  obtain.  Elisabeth  readily  foresaw,  that  so  soon  as 
Francis  became  master  of  Scothind,  he  would  attempt  to  enforce 
Bfary's  claims  to  the  throne  of  England,  grounded  partly  on  the 
assumption  of  her  being  illegitimate.  A  considerable  number  of 
English  troops  were  then  manhed  to  Scotland,  and  having 
formed  a  junction  with  the  Scottish  malecontents,  they  besieged 
the  French  in  the  town  of  Leith,  near  Edinburgh.  The  latter 
were  soon  obliged  to  capitulate.  By  the  articles  signed  at  Leith 
(]560,)  the  French  and  English  troops  were  to  evacuate  Scot- 
land ;  Francis  11.  Kin|^  of  France,  and  his  wife  Mary  Stuart, 
were  to  renounce  the  titles  and  arms  of  the  sovereigns  of  Eng- 
land, which  they  had  assumed ;  while  a  I^irliament  was  to  be 
assembled  at  Edinburgh  for  the  pacification  of  the  kingdom. 

The  parliament  which  met  soon  aAer,  ratified  the  Confession 
of  faith,  drawn  up  and  presented  by  the  Presbyterian  ministers. 
The  Presbyterian  worship  was  introduced  into  Scotland ;  and 
the  parliament  even  went  so  fhr  as  to  prohibit  Uie  exercise 
of  the  Catholic  religion.  Marv  Stuart,  on  her  return  to  Scot- 
land (1561,)  after  the  death  of  her  husband  Francis,  was  obliged 
to  acquiesce  in  all  these  changes ;  and  it  was  with  difficulty  she 
was  allowed  the  liberty  of  having  a  Catholic  chapel  attached  to 
her  court.  This  unfortunate  princess  was  afterwards  nccused 
of  having  caused  the  assassination  of  Henry  Damley,  her  se- 
cond husband ;  and  being  obliged  to  fly  the  country,  she  took 
shelter  in  England  (1568,)  where  she  was  arrested  and  impri- 
soned by  order  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  After  a  captivity  of  nme- 
teen  years  she  was  sentenced  to  death,  and  beheaded  (18th  Feb. 
1687,)  as  an  accomplice  in  the  difierent  plots  which  had  been 
formed  against  the  life  of  her  royal  relative. 

The  troubles  which  the  reformation  of  religion  had  excited  in 
Scotland,  extended  also  to  Ireland.     A  kind  of  corrupt  feudal 


OlAfTBITn* 

,yrt«n  h.d  pwTwW  origindly  In  that  U^ 

Za  not  been  aUe  to  extirpiUe.    The  K-f'JJ.rtJy  JJ* 

tMM  thmOb  of  tlw  crown,  and  goreroed  W  the  Uwe  of  Km- 

IS  po—^d  ne»ly  on^thlrd  of  *•  jS?l2ffiiiSSS 
the  wtof  the  island  was  in  the  hands  of  tho  WA  wowrirton, 
who.  although  they  acknowledged  the  eofeirigftty  of  tfi*  Bng. 
Sh  king.,  preeertid  neTertheleje  the  kwguag*  and  mannen  of 
Sr  naWUnd ;  »d  were  inclined  to^  yryry  opportunity 
of  shaking  off  the  English  yoke,  which  they  deterted.    Hence, 
a  contintSd  series  of%ars  and  fends,  both  among  the  Insh 
themseWes,  and  against  the  English,  who  on  the»  part  had  no 
other  object  than  to  extend  their  possessionj  at  the  exjwise  of 
the  natiies.    The  kings  of  England,  guided  by  an  injudicious 
poUcy,  for  several  centuries  exhausted  their  resources  in  wrpetual 
Smrs;  sometimes  against  France,  sometimes  against  Scotland, 
and  someUmes  against  their  own  subjects,  without  paying  the 
least  attention  to  IreUnd,  of  which  they  anpear  to  hate  known 
neither  the  importance  nor  the  effectual  advautages  which  they 
miftht  have  reaped  from  it  by  means  of  a  wise  admmistraUon. 
The  progress  of^culture  and  industry  became  Aus  completely 
imprSctiSle;  a^deep-rooted  hatred  was  estabhshed  between 
Uie  islanders  and  the  English,  who  m  fact  seemed  two  disttnct 
nations,  enemies  of  each  other,  and  formmg  no  alhances  either 
bv  marriage  or  reciprocal  intercourse.    ,     _     ,.  . 
^The  resentment  of  the  Irish  against  the  English  government 
was  ajrgravated  stUl  more,  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  by 
the  viSrous  measures  that  were  taken,  subsequently  to  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIII.,  to  extend  to  Ireland  the  laws  framed  m  Eng- 
Und  ist  the  court  of  Rome  and  the  Cajohc  ckrgv.     A 
generafinsurrection  broke  out  in  Uie  reign  of  El«»l«*  (l^SJ') 
Se  chief  instigator  of  which  was  Hugh  O'Neal,  head  of  a  clan 
to  the  province  of  Ulster,  and  Earl  o!  Tyrone.     HavinR  gained 
over  the  whole  Irish  Catholics  to  his  cause,  he  planned  an  ex- 
tensive conspiracy,  with  the  design  of  effef°t*e  entire  expul- 
sion of  the  English  from  the  island.     Phibp  D.,  King  of  Spain, 
supplied  the  insurgents  with  troops  and  ammunition ;  and  Pope 
Cfement  VIII.  hefl  out  ample  indulgencesin  favour  of  those 
w£»  should  enUst  under  the  banners  of  O'Neal,  to  combat  the 
EnglUh  heretics.    This  insurgent  chief  met  at  ^f  with  con- 
Sdfrable  success  ;  he  defeatel  the  Enghsh  m  a  mtched  batUe. 
«d  maintained  his  ground  against  the  Earl  of  "Essex,  whom 
Elizabeth  had  despatched  to  the  island  with  a  formidable  army. 
The  rebels,  however,  ultimately  failed  in  their  enterprise,  after 
a  saneuinuy  war  which  lasted  seven  years.     Charles,  Lord 
Mountjoy,  governor  of  Ireland,  drove  the  insurgents  to  their  kst 


■A.»;,'jw!i?*«feiiaisft^w4';i*;i!-«.v-«»,vUJi&e^i 


l^itUmd,  iHiich  Henry  11. 
uih  nroprwivnt  wlio 
by  the  hwt  of  Bng- 
le  wbmk  eoontry;  wUm 
of  Um  Iriifa  proprMton, 
■ownigaity  of  tb«  Eng^ 
bu)|[aag«  «Bd  mannen  of 
-  Min  ofory  opportuiiity 
they  deteeted.    Hence, 
,  both  among  the  Irish 
Iwho  on  their  part  bed  no 
JwMioni  at  the  enmue  of 

yuided  by  an  injudicious 
eir  resources  in  perpetual 
letimes  against  Scotland, 
jects,  without  paying  the 
lev  appear  to  have  known 
iial  adnuitages  which  diey 

of  a  wise  administration, 
try  became  thus  completely 

was  established  between 
in  fact  seemed  two  distinct 
brming  no  alliances  eiUier 

St  the  English  goTemment 
ime  of  the  Reformation,  by 
in,  subsequently  to  the  reign 
1  the  laws  framed  in  Eng- 
id  the  Catholic  clergy.  A 
!  reign  of  Elizabeth  (1506,) 
igh  O'Neal,  head  of  a  ckui 
}f  Tyrone.  Having  gained 
s  cause,  he  planned  an  ex- 
f  effecting  the  entire  expul- 

Philip  n..  King  of  Smin, 
md  ammunition ;  and  Pope 
ilgences  in  favour  of  those 
s  of  O'Neal,  to  combat  the 
:hief  met  at  first  widi  con- 
English  in  a  mtched  battle, 

the  Earl  of  Essex,  whom 
nd  with  a  formidable  army, 
sd  in  their  enterprise,  after 
ven  years.  Charles,  Lord 
I  the  insurgents  to  their  last 


niiOD  VI.    A.  0.  1403—1648. 


tfl 


,  and  had  the  glory  of  achieving  the  entire  redaction  of 
the  island.  * 

The  maritime  neatnees  of  England  began  in  the  reign  of 
EUabeth.  That  Princess  gave  new  vigour  to  industry  and 
commerce ;  and  her  eflbrta  were  seconded  by  Uie  persecuting 
wal  of  the  French  and  Spanish  ffovernments.  The  numerous 
refugees  from  France  and  the  Netherlands,  found  a  ready  asy* 
jum  in  England,  under  the  protection  of  Elizabeth  ;  and  her 
kingdom  became,  as  it  were,  the  retreat  and  principal  residence 
of  their  arts  and  manufactures.  She  encouraged  and  protected 
navigation,  which  the  English,  by  degrees,  extended  to  all  parts 
of  the  globe.  An  Englishman,  named  Richard  Chancellor, 
having  discovered  the  route  to  Archangel  in  the  Icy  Sea  (1556,) 
the  Czar,  John  Basiiowitz  IT.,  granted  to  an  English  company 
the  exclusive  privilege  of  trading  with  Russia  (1569.)  The 
commerce  of  the  English  with  Turkey  and  the  Levant,  which 
began  in  1579,  was  likewise  monopolized  by  a  Company  of  mer- 
chants. Francis  Drake,  a  distinguished  navigator,  and  the  rival 
of  Magellan,  was  the  first  Englishman  that  performed  a  voyage 
round  the  world,  between  1577  and  1580.  The  intercourse  be- 
tween England  and  the  East  Indies  began  in  1591 ;  and  the 
East  India  Company  was  instituted  in  1600.  Attempts  were 
also  made,  about  the  same  time,  to  form  settlements  m  North 
America ;  and  Walter  Raleigh,  who  had  obtained  a  charter  from 
th«  Qu««n  (1584,)  endeavoured  to  tbumX  a  colony  in  that  part 
of  the  American  Continent,  now  called  Virginia,  in  compliment 
to  Elizabeth.  That  colony,  however,  did  not,  properly  speak- 
ing, take  root  or  flourish  till  the  reign  of  James  I.  The  compe- 
tition with  Spain,  and  the  destruction  of  the  Invincible  Armada 
of  Fhilip  II.,  by  the  combined  fleets  of  England  and  Holland, 
gave  a  new  energy  to  the  English  marine,  the  value  of  which 
they  had  learned  to  appreciate,  not  merely  in  guarding  the  in- 
dependence of  the  kingdom,  but  in  securing  me  prosperity  of 
their  commerce  and  navigation. 

The  House  of  Tudor  ended  in  Queen  Elizabeth  (1603,)  after 
having  occupied  the  throne  of  England  about  a  hundred  and 
^hteen  years.  It  was  replaced  by  that  of  the  Stuarts.  James 
VI.,  King  of  Scotland,  son  of  Mary  Stuart,  and  Henry  Damley, 
snceeeded  to  the  throne  of  England,  and  took  the  title  of  King  of 
Great  Britain,  which  his  successors  still  retain.  This  prince  de- 
rived his  right  to  the  crown,  from  the  marriage  of  his  great  nand- 
mother,  Margaret  Tudor,  daughter  of  Henry  VII.,  with  Jamei 
TV.  of  Scotland.  Vain  of  his  new  elevation,  and  fond  of  pre- 
rogative, James  constantly  occupied  himself  with  projects  for 
augmenting  his  royal  power  and  authority  in  England ;  and  1^ 


* 


tl 


Hi  MumiTit. 

iaBtUUni  th«M  prineiplM  into  hit  Mm,  h«  Ucum  Um  tnm  tNhi« 
ttct  of  kU  the  milNoquoiit  miafortuiiM  of  hii  luniM. 

CluurlM  I.,  the  Mm  and  miceeMor  of  Jamett  Nklom  eoav«tn«d 
dM  Puliunont ;  and  whon  they  did  aMomUoi  he  provolMd  them 
bv  the  meaauiea  he  piopoaed,  and  waa  then  obliged  to  diaaolve 
them.  Being  entirely  guided  hv  hit  miniaten  Laud.  Arch> 
Ushop  of  Canterimry,  the  Earls  oi  Strafford  and  Hamilton,  and 
his  Queen,  Henrietta  of  France,  he  ventured  to  Iotv  taxes  and 
impositions  without  the  advice  of  Parliament.  This  conduct 
on  the  part  of  tibe  King  produced  u  general  discontent.  The 
flames  of  civil  war  began  to  kindle  in  Scotland,  where  Charles 
had  introduced  Episcopacy,  as  more  favourable  than  Presbyte* 
nanism  to  royalty.  But  the  Scottish  nobility,  having  formed  a 
confederacy,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Covenant,  for  the  main- 
tenance of  their  ecclesiasticol  liberties,  ttbolished  Episcopacy 
(IttSB,)  and  subsequently  took  up  arms  against  the  King.  The 
Parliament  of  England,  under  such  circumstances,  rose  also 
againiit  Charles  (1641.)  and  passed  an  act  that  they  should  not 
be  dissolved  without  previously  obtaining  redress  for  the  com- 
plaints of  the  nation.  This  act,  which  deprived  the  King  of  his 
principal  prerogative,  proved  fatal  to  the  royal  dignity.  A  trial 
waa  instituted  by  the  Parliament  affainst  ue  King's  ministers. 
The  Earl  of  Straflbrd  and  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  were 
beheaded ;  and  Chules  had  the  wt^nkniiss  to  sign  the  death-war- 
rant of  hia  fiilthltll  servants. 

The  Presbyterians  soon  became  the  prevailing  party,  and  ex- 
cluded the  Bishops  Irom  the  Upper  House.  The  management 
of  aflSiirs  fell  then  into  the  hands  of  the  House  of  Commons ; 
Episcopacy  Was  abolidhed ;  and  ihe  Parliament  of  England  ac- 
ceded to  the  Scottish  Covenant.  War  now  broke  out  between 
the  King  and  the  Parliament ;  a  battle  was  fought  near  York, 
in  which  the  lattor  was  victorious  (1644.)  Charles,  seeing  his 
aflhirs  ruined,  took  the  determination  to  throw  himself  into  the 
arms  of  die  Scots  (1646,)  who,  he  supposed,  miffht  still  retain 
an  affection  for  the  race  of  their  ancient  Kings.  He  soon  found 
reason,  however,  to  repent  of  this  step ;  the  Scots  did  not  hesi- 
tate to  sell  him  to  the  English  Parliament  for  a  sum  of  £400,000, 
Sterling,  which  they  Cnimd  necessary  for  the  payn«nt  of  their 
txoqw. 

A  new  revolution,  which  aoon  after  hanpened  in  the  Parlia* 
ment,  completed  the  ruin  of  the  King.  The  Pjresbyterians,  or 
Pttritans,  who  had  suppressed  the  Episeopaliana,  were  crushed, 
in  their  turn,  by  the  uidependento.  Theae  latter  were  a  swrt  of 
fimatics,  who  aomitled  no  subordination  whatever  in  the  Church, 
•ntertaiiwd  a  perfect  honor  for  royalty,  and  wer«  indiiMd  for  • 


n. 

I,  h*  bwMM  Um  tnw  uchi' 
•  of  hia  hotue. 
of  Jamoa,  Mklom  coaT«ia«d 
MMinble,  he  provokad  them 
m  then  oUiged  to  diaeolve 
lie  miniatera  Laud.  Arch* 
Strafford  end  Hamilton,  and 
ventured  to  levy  taxes  and 
"'arliament.    lliie  conduct 
general  discontent.    The 
in  Scotland,  where  Charles 
e  favourable  than  Presbyte- 
ih  nobility,  having  formed  a 
the  Covenant,  for  the  main- 
ties,  nbolished  Episcopacy 
rms  against  the  King.     The 
h  circumstances,  rose  also 
an  act  that  they  should  not 
taining  redress  for  the  com- 
ich  deprived  the  King  of  his 
the  royal  dignity.     A  trial 
piinst  the  King's  ministers, 
ibishop  of  Canterburv  were 
Irness  to  sign  the  death-war- 
he  prevailing  party,  and  ex- 
'  House.     The  management 
of  the  House  of  Commons ; 
!  Parliament  of  England  ac- 
Var  now  broke  out  between 
title  was  fought  near  York, 
1644.)    Charles,  seeing  his 
m  to  dirow  himself  into  the 
supposed,  miffht  still  retain 
lent  Kings.    He  soon  found 
tep ;  the  Scots  did  not  hesi- 
ment  for  a  sum  of  £400,000, 
ry  for  the  payment  of  their 

ler  hanpened  in  the  Parlia* 
ag.  Tne  Presbyterians,  or 
!piacepalians,  were  crushed, 
Theae  latter  were  a  sort  of 
ion  whatever  in  the  Chuick, 
Ity,  and  were  inclined  for  a 


ntMD  TL    A.  D.  1453—1648. 

republican  or  democratic  form  of  government.  The  head  and 
soul  of  this  faction  was  the  famous  Oliver  Cromwell,  who,  with 
great  dexterity,  made  it  an  engine  for  raising  himself  to  the 
sovereign  authority.  The  whole  power  of  the  Legislature  fell 
entirely  into  the  hands  of  the  Independent  pHrty ;  who,  by  one 
act,  expelled  sixty  members  from  the  House  of  Commons.  The 
Parliament,  now  completely  under  their  dominion,  appointed  a 
commission  of  a  hunored  and  fifty  persons,  whom  they  vested 
with  power  to  tr)r  the  King.  In  vain  did  the  Upper  House 
oppose  this  resolution ;  in  vain  did  the  King  object  to  tne  Judges 
named  by  the  House ;  the  commisxion  proceeded,  and  pronounced 
the  famous  sentence,  by  virtue  of  which  Charles  was  beheaded 
on  the  30th  of  January  1649.  His  family  were  dispersed,  and 
saved  themselves  by  night. 

The  revolutions  in  the  North  of  Europe,  about  the  period  of 
which  we  now  speak,  were  not  less  important  than  thoso  which 
agitated  the  West  and  the  South.  These  arose  chiefly  from 
the  dissolution  of  the  Union  of  Calmar,  and  the  reformation  in 
religion ;  both  of  which  happened  about  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  The  Union  of  Calmar,  between  the  three 
kingdoms  of  the  North,  had  been  renewed  several  times  ;  but, 
being  badly  cemented  from  the  first,  it  was  at  length  irreparably 
broken  by  Sweden.  This  latter  kingdom  had  been  distracted 
by  intestme  feuds,  occasioned  by  the  ambition  and  jealousy  of 
the  nobles,  which  continued  during  the  whole  reign  of  Charles 
VIII.,  of  the  House  of  Bonde.  Ai\er  the  death  of  that  Prince 
(1470,)  the  Swedes,  without  renouncing  the  Union,  had  regu- 
larly appointed  as  administrators  of  the  kingdom,  from  the  year 
1471  till  1520,  three  individuals  of  the  family  of  Sture,  viz. 
Steno  Sture,  called  the  Old,  Suaute  Sture  and  Steno  Sture, 
called  the  Young. 

Meantime,  John,  King  of  Denmark,  and  son  of  Christian  1., 
had  governed  the  three  kingdoms  since  1407,  when  Steno  Sture 
the  elder  had  re8igned,untiT  1501,  when  he  resumed  the  admin- 
istration. At  length,  however.  Christian  II.,  son  of  John,  made 
war  on  Steno  Stun,  sumomed  the  Young,  with  a  view  to 
enforce  the  claims  which  he  derived  from  the  act  of  union. 
Being  victorious  at  the  battle  of  Bogesund,  where  Sture  lost 
his  Ufe,  he  succeeded  in  making  himself  acknowledged  by  the 
Swedes  as  kinff,  and  was  crowned  at  Stockholm  (15120.)  Within 
a  tbott  time  after  this  ceremony,  he  violated  the  amnesty  which 
he  had  mil  Jcly  announced ;  and  to  gratify  the  ravenge  ot  Gusat* 
TUB  Troue,  .^rchluahop  of  Upsal,  whom  tm  Swedes  had  depoited, 
he  cauaed  ninety-fivur  of  the  most  distinguished  personages  in  the 
kingdom  to  be  anested,  and  publicly  beheaded  at  Stockholm. 


oKirfift  vn. 

This  manaore  caused  a  ravolutioot  W  which  Sweden  recover' 
ed  its  ancient  state  of  independence.  Uustams  Vasa  put  him> 
adf  at  the  head  of  the  Dalecarlians,  amlntioas  to  become  the 
liberator  of  his  country  (1^1.)  He  was  declared  Regent,  and 
two  yeaiA  after,  King  of  Sweden.  The  example  of  the  Swedes 
was  soon  followed  by  the  Danes,  who,  indignant  at  the  excesses 
and  cruelties  of  CImstian  11.,  deposed  him,  and  conferred  their 
crown  on  Frederic,  Duke  of  Holstein,  and  paternal  uncle  to  that 
prince.  Christian,  after  having  long  wandered  about  the  Low 
Countries,  was  made  prisoner  by  the  Danes,  and  remained  in 
captivity  die  rest  of  his  days.  The  Kings  of  Denmark  having 
renewed,  from  time  to  time,  their  pretensions  to  the  Swedish 
throne,  and  still  continued  the  three  crowns  on  their  escutcheon, 
several  wars  broke  out  on  this  subject  between  the  two  nations ; 
and  it  was  not  till  the  peace  of  Stettin  (1570,)  that  the  Danes 
acknowledged  the  entire  independence  of  Sweden. 

Denmark  then  lost  the  ascendency  which  she  had  so  long 
maintained  in  the  North.  The  government  of  the  kingdom  un- 
derwent a  radical  change.  A  corrupt  aristocracy  rose  on  the 
ruins  of  the  national  liberty.  The  senate,  composed  wholly  of 
the  nobles,  usurped  all  authority ;  they  overruled  the  election  of 
the  kings,  and  appropriated  to  themselves  the  powers  of  the 
States-General,  which  they  had  not  convoked  since  1536 ;  they 
encroached  even  on  the  royal  authority,  which  was  curtailed 
more  and  more  every  day  ;  while  the  prerogatives  of  the  nobility 
were  extended  by  the  conditions  which  the  Senate  prescribed  to 
the  kings  on  their  accession  to  the  crown.  The  reformation  of 
religion  took  place  in  Denmark,  in  the  reign  of  Frederic  I.,  the 
successor  of  Christian  II.  That  ^nce  employed  an  eloquent 
preacher,  named  John  Tausen,  and  sevenu  other  diwiples  of 
Luther,  to  promuk;ate  the  Protestant  doctrines  in  his  kingdom. 
In  a  diet  held  at  Odensee  (lfi27,)  the  King  made  a  public  pro- 
fession of  the  new  faith ;  and,  in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of 
the  bishops,  he  passed  a  decree,  in  virtue  of  which,  liberty  of 
conscience  was  estabUshed,  and  permission  granted  to  the  pnests 
and  monks  to  marry.  These  articles  were  renewed  in  another 
diet,  assembled  at  Copenhagen  (1630 ;)  where  the  King  ratified 
the  Confession  of  Faith  presented  to  hun  by  the  Protestant  min- 
isters, similar  to  what  had  taken  place  the  same  year  at  the  diet 
of  Aiigsburg. 

At  length  Christian  III.  who  was  elected  in  1534,  brought 
these  chimges  in  religion  to  a  close.  The  bishops,  during  the 
laat  interregnum,  had  done  every  thing  to  atop  the  progress  of 
the  Beformation.  The  Kin^,  desirous  of  aimihilating  their 
temporal  power,  colluded  with  the  principal  ooUlity  to  lunre  iJI 


,  Inr  which  Sweden  recover* 
GostaTUs  Vasa  put  him< 
amUtious  to  become  the 
was  declared  Regent,  and 
'he  example  of  the  Swedes 
0,  indignant  at  the  excesses 
ed  hiui,  and  conferred  their 
a,  and  paternal  uncle  to  that 
ig  wandered  about  the  Low 
i  Danes,  and  remained  in 
Kings  of  Denmark  having 
iretensions  to  the  Swedish 
crowns  on  their  escutcheon, 
ct  between  the  two  nations ; 
ttin  (1670,)  that  the  Danes 
ice  of  Sweden, 
icy  which  she  had  so  long 
rernment  of  the  kingdom  un- 
upt  aristocracy  rose  on  the 
senate,  composed  wholly  of 
hey  overruled  the  election  of 
smselves  the  powers  of  the 
;  convoked  since  1536 ;  they 
hority,  which  was  curtailed 
le  prerogatives  of  the  nobility 
nich  the  Senate  prescribed  to 
crown.     The  reformation  of 
the  reign  of  Frederic  I.,  the 
irince  employed  an  eloquent 
nd  bevenu  other  disciples  of 
int  doctrines  in  his  kingdom, 
the  King  made  a  public  pro- 
spite  of  the  remonstrances  of 
In  virtue  of  which,  liberty  of 
rmission  granted  to  the  priests 
les  were  renewed  in  another 
iSN) ;)  where  the  King  ratified 
to  hun  by  the  Protestant  min- 
lace  the  same  year  at  the  diet 

TU  elected  in  1634,  brought 
le.  The  bishcHM,  during  the 
tlung  to  stop  the  progress  of 
esirotts  of  aimihilating  their 
principal  nd^ty  to  na»«  all 


mioD  Ti.    ▲.  D.  14fiS— 1648. 


die  biahopa  in  the  kingdom  arreated ;  and  having  then  i 

bled  a  meeting  of  the  States  at  Copenha|[en,  he  atolished  Epis- 
copacy, and  suppressed  the  public  exercise  of  the  Catholic  reli- 
gion. The  castles,  fortresses,  and  vast  domains  of  the  prelatea 
were  annexed  to  the  crown ;  and  the  other  benefices  and  reve- 
nues of  the  clergy  were  appropriated  to  the  support  of  the  minis- 
ters of  reliffion,  public  schools,  and  the  poor.  The  monks  and 
nuns  were  left  at  liberty,  either  to  quit  their  convents,  or  remain 
there  during  their  lives.  The  bishops  were  replaced  by  super- 
intendents, the  nomination  of  whom  was  vested  in  the  King; 
while  each  coi^negation  retained  the  privilege  of  choosing  ita 
own  pastors.  From  Denmark  this  revolution  passed  to  Norway, 
which  at  that  time,  on  account  of  having  joined  the  party  of 
Christian  II.,  who  was  deposed  by  the  Danes,  lost  its  indepen- 
dence, and  was  declared  a  province  of  the  kingdom  of  Dennuiric. 

The  House  of  Oldenburg,  which  had  occupied  the  throne  of 
Denmark  since  1448,  was  separated  in  the  reign  of  Christian 
III.  into  two  powerful  branches,  viz.  the  Boyal,  descended  from 
that  prince ;  and  the  familv  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  descended  from 
his  brother  the  Duke  Adolphus.  This  latter  oranch  was  eStet- 
wards  divided  into  three  others,  viz.  those  of  Russia,  Sweden 
and  Holstein-Oldenburg.  As  the  law  of  primogeniture  was  not 
established  in  the  dutchies  of  Sletswick  and  Holstein,  which  had 
fallen  into  the  succession  of  the  House  of  Oldenburg,  Uie  Kinga 
of  Denmark  soon  found  themselves  under  the  necessity  of  divi- 
ding these  dutchies  among  the  younger  prmces  of  their  family. 
The  treaty  of  partition,  which  was  entered  into  (1644)  between 
Christian  III.  and  his  jrother,  had  been  preceded  bv  a  treaty  of 
perpetual  union,  annexing  these  dutchies  to  the  kingdom,  and 
intended  to  preserve  the  throne,  which  vros  elective,  in  the  Houaa 
of  Oldenburg ;  as  well  as  to  prevent  any  portion  of  these  two 
dutchies  from  falling  into  the  possession  of  strangers.  The 
union  was  to  endure  as  long  as  tne  descendants  of  Frederic  I. 
reigned  in  Deiiinark.  They  promised  to  settle,  by  arbitration, 
whatever  differences  might  arise  between  the  states  of  the  union ; 
to  tiSatA  each  other  mutual  succour  against  every  external  ene- 
my ;  and  to  undertdke  no  war  but  by  common  consent. 

The  treaty  of  1644  which  regulated  this  partition,  made  seve- 
ral exceptions  of  matters  that  were  to  be  managed  and  admini*- 
tered  in  common ;  such  as,  the  customs,  jurisdiction  over  the 
nobles,  the  lushops,  and  certain  cities.  This  ^ve  rise  to  a  soit 
of  oq^artnership  of  power,  common  to  all  the  pnnces  of  the  union, 
BverjT  thing  retarding  either  the  general  safety  as  stipulated  in 
the  treaty,  or  ton  exercise  of  these  iffivileg<)s  included  m  the  en- 
oeptioBs,  was  to  be  discussed  and  settled  oy  unanimous  eonsmt; 


pTvfi?^  ■:' 

li 

^i) 

t 

I, 


chaftss  tii< 

ad  tn  this  foipose  a  conncil  of  regency,  an  excheqoer,  and 
cMBgRtioa  couttB  were  established.  This  union  and  eonumuiity 
drr^^  were  followed,  as  a  natural  consequence,  by  long  and 
desttuctiTe  feuds  between  the  Kings  of  Detimark  and  the  Dukes 
of  Holstein-Gottorp,  in  which  the  other  powers  of  the  North 
were  also  implicated. 

Christian  IV.,  grandson  of  Christian  III.,  was  distinguished 
not  more  by  the  superiority  of  his  talents,  than  by  the  indefati- 

Sible  zeal  with  which  he  ap^ied  himself  to  every  department  of 
e  administration.  It  was  m  his  reign  that  the  Danes  extend- 
ed their  commerce  as  far  as  India.  He  founded  the  first  Danish 
East  India  Company  (1616,)  who  formed  a  settlement  in  Tran- 
(jnebar  on  the  Coromandel  coast,  which  had  been  ceded  to  them 
Dy  the  Rajah  of  Tanjore.  Various  manufactories  of  silk  stuffs, 
paper,  and  arms,  were  constructed,  and,  several  towns  built  un> 
der  the  auspices  of  Christian  IV.  The  sciences  were  also  much 
indebted  to  him ;  he  gave  a  new  lustre  to  the  University  of  Co- 
penhagen, and  founded  the  Academy  of  Soroe  in  Zealand,  be- 
sides a  number  of  colleges.  If  he  was  unsuccessful  in  his  wars 
against  Sweden  and  Austria,  it  must  be  ascribed  to  the  narrow 
limits  of  his  power,  to  the  influence  of  the  aristocratic  spirit,  and 
of  the  feudal  regime  which  still  prevailed  in  Denmark.  He 
succeeded,  however,  in  excluding  the  Swedes  from  access  to  the 
Icy  Sea,  which  opened  them  a  way  to  the  coasts  of  Lapland,  by 
obtaining  possession,  at  the  peace  of  Siorod  (1613,)  of  that  part 
of  Lapland  which  extends  along  the  Northern  and  Icy  Seas, 
from  Titisfiord  to  Waranger  and  Wardhuys.  The  disputes  con- 
cerning the  three  crowns  was  settled  by  the  same  treaty,  in  such 
a  way  that  both  sovereigns  were  permitted  to  use  them,  without 
anliiorizing  the  King  of  Denmark  to  lay  any  claim  to  Uie  Swe- 
dish crown. 

Sweden,  which  bad  long  maintained  a  struggle  against  Den- 
moile,  at  length  acquired  such  a  preponderance  over  her  as  to 
threaten,  more  than  once,  the  entire  subversion  of  the  throne. 
This  preponderance  was  the  achievement  of  two  great  men,  who 
wae  iit  toe  period  we  now  speak  of,  viz.  Gastavnos  Vasa,  and  his 
iMndmn  Onstavus  Adolj^ns.  Gustams  Yaaa  was  not  merely 
me  Gberator,  but.  the  restorer  of  Ms  country.  Elevated  to  the 
ttttoneliy  die  free  choice  of  the  nation,  he  gave  Sweden  a  power 
«id  an  influence  which  it  never  had  Mfore.  Every  thing 
uAder  him  asaumed  a  new  aspect,  the  goremiaent,  Ae  religion, 
ths  ftaracet,  the  eomiueree,  me  agriculnin,  Ae  seiencesani  die 
dienlr  ef  the  Swedes.  Instead  of  the  asMliiniM  of  the  nobles, 
totmei^  m  oae,  and  daetnictive  of  the  national  uberty,  he  sub- 
aUWiWwTPirtt  cooipoeiMl  of  tat  difierent  oiden  of  the  State»  the 


'  t 


Kncy,  an  excheqow,  and 
his  union  and  eonunnnity 
consequence,  by  Uaut  and 
De^unark  and  the  Dukes 
her  powers  of  the  North 

an  III.,  was  distinguished 
ents,  than  by  the  indefati- 
self  to  every  department  of 
gn  that  the  Danes  extend- 
le  founded  the  first  Danish 
med  a  settlement  in  Tran- 
ch  had  been  ceded  to  them 
nanufactories  of  silk  stuiTs, 
(id,  several  towns  built  un- 
he  sciences  were  also  much 
re  to  the  University  of  Co- 
r  of  Soroe  in  Zealand,  be- 
as  unsuccessful  in  his  wars 
t  be  ascribed  to  the  narrow 
)f  the  aristocratic  spirit,  and 
levailed  in  Denmark.     He 
s  Swedes  from  access  to  the 
to  the  coasts  of  Lapland,  by 
Siorod  (1613,)  of  that  part 
le  Northern  and  Icy  Seas, 
irdhuys.    The  disputes  con- 
l  by  the  same  treaty,  in  such 
rmitted  to  use  them,  without 
>  lay  any  claim  to  the  Swe- 

ned  a  struggle  against  Den- 
eponderance  over  her  as  to 
re  subversion  of  the  throne, 
ment  of  two  great  men,  who 
viz.  GostaTQs  Vasa,  and  his 
staros  Yaaa  was  not  merely 
I  country.  Elevated  to  the 
n,  he  gave  Sweden  a  power 
had  before.  Every  tUng 
\m  goremment,  ^e  religion, 
coltdie,  die  seienceaaiMl  die 
the  a8WttMi«|  of  the  noUes, 
the  national  uberty,  he  sub- 
rent  orden  of  tin  State,  the 


ntioD  n.    AmP.  14G3— 1648.  MBT 

nobility,  the  cleigy,  the  citiaena,  and  the  peasantry.  By  thi» 
meaw he acquirMa  Mw influenoe,  of  whica  he  took  adnotage 
to  humble  die  power  of  the  chiudi  aud  the  nobles,  which  had 
long  been  a  source  of  oraression  to  Sweden. 

The  reformation  of  religion,  which  then  occupied  every  mind, 
appeared  to  Oustaws  a  very  proper  expedient  to^  second  his 
views,  and  introduce  a  better  ormr  of  things.  On  his  accession 
to  the  throne,  he  authoriied  the  two  brotnera  Olaus  and  Lau- 
rentius  Petri,  to  preach  publicly  at  Stockholm  the  doctrines  of 
Luther,  and  did  every  thing  in  nis  power  to  accelerate  the  pro- 
gress of  the  Reformation  m  his  kingdom.  The  bishops,  who 
were  apprehensive  for  their  benefices  and  their  authority,  having 
drawn  the  greater  part  of  the  nobility  over  to  their  interest,  the 
king,  in  the  presence  of  a  Diet  of  the  four  orders  assembled  at 
Westeras,  took  the  determination  of  formally  abdicating  the 
crown.  This  step  threw  the  Diet  into  a  state  of  consternation, 
and  encouraged  the  two  lower  orders,  the  citizens  and  peasants, 
to  declare  themselves  loudly  for  the  King.  The  bishops  and 
nobles  were  obliged  to  comply ;  and  the  King,  resuming  the 
reins  of  government,  succeeded  in  overruling  the  deliberations 
of  the  Diet.  By  the  authority  of  a  decree,  he  annexed  the  strong 
castles  of  the  bishops  to  the  demesnes  of  the  crown,  and  retrench- 
ed from  their  vast  possessions  whatever  he  judged  convenient 
The  prelates  at  the  same  time  were  excluded  uom  the  senate ; 
the  ties  that  bound  them  to  the  Court  of  Rome  were  broken ; 
and  they  were  enjoined  henceforth  to  demand  confirmation  firom 
the  King,  and  not  from  the  Pope.  The  revenues  of  the  clergy 
in  general,  and  those  of  the  convents,  were  left  at  the  free  dis- 
posal of  the  king,  and  the  nobles  were  permitted  to  brinf  forward 
whatever  claims  they  could  adduce  over  lands  granted  to  these 
convents  by  their  ancestors.  There  was  nothing  now  to  retard 
the  march  of  reformation.  The  Lutheran  religion  was  introdu- 
ced universallv  into  Sweden,  and  that  event  contributed  not  a 
litde  to  exalt  the  royal  authority-. 

Gustavus  secured  the  hereditary  succession  of  the  crowu  in 
fiivour  of  his  male  descendants.  The  States,  anxious  to  obvi- 
ate the  troubles  and  disorders  which  the  demise  of  their  kingi 
had  often  produced,  regulated  the  succesuon  by  an  act  known 
by  the  name  of  the  Heniitury  Union.  It  was  passed  at  On- 
bro  (1640,)  and  ratified  anew  by  the  States  assembled  at  WW 
teres.  The  Union  Act  was  renewed  at  the  Diet  of  Nordkopii^ 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  IX.  (1604,)  when  the  succession  ww 
extended  to  femaloa. 

The  reign  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  the  son  of  Charles  IX., 
rtiaed  die  glory  of  Sweden  to  its  height.    The  virtuaa  and 


ORApm  vn< 


I  of  that  jjirince,  the  sagacity  of  his  viewi,  the  admiiaUe 
aria  which  he  introduced  into  eyery  branch  of  the  adminiatra- 
iMm,  endeared  him  to  his  subjects ;  while  his  military  exploits, 
■ad  hia  auperiority  in  the  art  of  war,  fixed  upon  him  the  admi- 
ntion  of  all  Europe. 

Ghutavus  brought  the  wars,  which  he  had  to  sustain  against 
die  difibrent  powers  of  the  North,  to  a  most  triumphant  conclu- 
aion.  By  the  peace  which  he  concluded  at  Stolbova  with  Sus- 
aia  (16170  he  obtained  possession  of  all  Ingria,  Kexholm,  and 
Rnmian  Carelia ;  and  even  cut  that  Empire  off  from  all  com- 
munication with  Europe  by  the  Gulf  of  Finland  and  the  Baltic 
Sea.  His  success  was  not  less  brilliant  in  his  campaigns  against 
Sigismund  III.,  King  of  Poland,  who  psrsisted  in  contesting 
with  him  his  right  to  the  crown  of  Sweden.  He  took  from  the 
Fides  the  whole  of  Livonia,  with  a  part  of  Prussia ;  and  kept 
posaesnon  of  these  conquests  by  the  six  years  truce  which  he 
concluded  with  die  latter  at  Altmark  (1629.) 

It  was  about  this  time  that  Sweden  began  to  occupy  a  distin- 
gnished  place  among  the  powers  of  Europe ;  and  that  she  was 
called  on  to  take  the  lead  in  the  League  which  was  to  protect 
the  Princess  and  States  of  the  Empire  against  the  ambition  of 
Austria.  Gustavus,  who  was  in  alliance  with  France,  under- 
took a  task  as  difficult  as  it  wus  glorious.  In  the  short  space  of 
two  years  and  a  half,  he  overran  two-thirds  of  Germany  with 
his  victorious  arms.  He  vanquished  Tilly  at  the  famous  battle 
of  Leipsic  (1^1,)  and  extended  his  conquests  from  the  shores 
of  the  Baltic  to  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube.  Every  thing  yield- 
ed before  him,  and  every  place  opened  its  gates  to  him.  This 
great  prince,  who  had  made  war  a  new  art,  and  accustomed  his 
•imy  to  order,  and  a  system  of  tactics  never  before  known,  pei> 
iahed  at  the  memorable  battle  of  Lutzen  (1632,)  whieh  the 
Swedes  gained  a&er  his  death,  in  consequence  of  the  skilful  dis- 
positions he  had  formed. 

This  war  was  continued  under  the  minority  of  Queen  Chris- 
tina, his  daughter  and  heir.  It  was  still  carried  on,  although 
die  Swedes  had  undertakoi  a  new  war  against  Denmark,  with 
die  view  of  disengaging  themselves  fircnn  the  mediation  which 
(%ristian  IV.  had  undertaken  between  the  Emperor  and  Swe- 
dm,  at  the  congress  which  was  to  meet  at  Munster  and  Osna- 
imiff.  The  result  of  that  war  was  completely  to  the  advantage 
flf  Sweden,  which  gained  by  die  peace  of  Bromsbro  (1645)  the 
freedom  of  die  Smmd,  as  also  the  possession  of  the  provinces 
•ad  islands  trf  Jamptland,  Heriedalen,  Gothland,  Oeael,  and  Hal- 
land.  Lasdy,  die  peace  of  Westphalia  secured  to  Sweden  eon- 
sideraMepossessions  on  the  southern  coast  of  the  Baltic  Sea, 
such  as  Wismar,  Bremen  and  Verden,  and  part  of  Fomerania% 


his  views,  the  admiiaUe 
much  of  the  administra- 
hik  lus  military  exploits, 
bced  upon  him  the  admi- 

he  had  to  sustain  against 

most  triumphant  conclu- 

ed  at  Stolbova  with  Rus- 

all  Ingria,  Kexhoim,  and 

Empire  off  from  all  com- 

of  Finland  and  the  Baltic 

t  in  his  campaigns  against 

0  psrsisted  in  contesting 

reden.    He  took  from  the 

»art  of  ftussia ;  and  kept 

six  years  truce  which  he 

(1628.) 

began  to  occupy  a  distin- 

Surope ;  and  that  she  was 

igue  which  was  to  protect 

ire  against  the  ambition  of 

iance  with  France,  under- 

ous.     In  the  short  space  of 

ro-thirds  of  Germany  with 

Tilly  at  the  famous  battle 

conquests  from  the  shores 

mube.    Every  thing  yield- 

led  its  gates  to  him.     This 

ew  art,  and  accustomed  his 

',8  never  before  known,  pei> 

Lutzen  (1632,)  which  the 

isequence  of  the  skilful  dis- 

e  minority  of  Queen  Chris- 
is  stiU  carried  on,  although 
war  against  Denmark,  with 

from  the  mediation  which 
len  the  Emperor  and  Swe- 
meet  at  Munster  and  Osna- 
omidetely  to  the  advantage 
ace  of  Bromsbro  (1645)  the 

possession  of  the  provinces 
1,  Gothkmd,  Oeael^and  Hal- 
tlia  secured  to  Sweden  con- 
sro  coast  of  the  Baltic  Sea, 
en,  and  part  of  Pomeiania. 


niios  Ti.    A.  9. 148S— 164S. 

The  power  of  the  Teutonic  Kni^^ts,  which  had  been  greatly 
reduced  during  the  preceding  j^riod,  b^  the  defection  of  a  part 
of  Prussia,  was  completely  annihilated  in  the  North,  in  conse* 
quence  of  the  (changes  introduced  hy  the  reformation  of  religion. 
<  Albert  of  Brandeburg,  grandson  of^the  Elector  Albert  Achilles, 
on  his  elevation  to  the  (ugnity  of  Orand  Master  of  the  Order, 
thought  himself  obliged  to  withdraw  from  Poland  that  fealty  and 
homage  to  which  &e  Knia^ts  had  bound  themselves  by  the 
treaty  of  Thorn  in  1466.  This  refusal  furnished  matter  for  a 
war  between  them ;  which  began  in  1519,  and  ended  in  15S1, 
by  a  truco  of  four  years ;  at  the  expiration  of  which  the  Grand 
Master,  who  saw  the  doctrines  of  Luther  disseminated  in  Prus- 
sia, and  who  had  himself  imbibed  these  principles  in  Germany, 
found  means  to  settle  all  difierences  with  the  King  of  P(dand, 
by  a  treaty  which  he  concluded  with  him  at  Cracow  (1521.) 
He  there  engaged  to  db  homage  and  fealty  to  the  crown  of  Po- 
land, which  he  had  refused ;  and  Sigismund  1.,  who  was  his 
maternal  uncle,  granted  him  Teutonic  Prussia,  with  the  title  of 
Dutchy,  as  a  hereditary  fief,  both  for  himself  and  his  male-heirs, 
and  for  his  brothers  of  the  House  of  Brandeburg  and  Franeonia, 
and  their  feudal  heirs ;  reserving  the  right  of  reversion  in  favour 
of  Poland,  failing  the  male-descendants  of  these  princes. 

The  Teutonic  Kmghts  thus  lost  Prussia,  after  having  possess- 
ed it  for  nearly  three  hundred  years.  Retiring  to  their  pos- 
sessions in  Germany,  they  estabbshed  their  principal  residence 
at  Mergentheim  in  Franeonia,  where  they  proceeded  to  the  elec- 
tion of  a  new  Grand  Master,  in  the  person  of  Walter  de  Cron- 
berg.  The  Poles,  in  getting  rid  of  the  Teutonic  Knights,  whom 
they  had  regarded  with  jeuousy,  and  stibstituting  the  House  of 
Brandeburg  in  their  place,  never  dreamed  of  adopting  an  enemy 
still  more  dangerous,  who  would  one  day  concert  the  ruin  and 
annillilation  of  their  country. 

Immediately  afler  the  treaty  of  Cracow,  the  new  Duke  of 
Prussia  made  a  pablic  profession  of  the  Lutheran  religion,  and 
married  a  daughter  of  the  King  of  Denmark.  This  princess 
dying  without  male  issue,  he  married  for  his  second  wife  a  prin- 
cess of  the  Brunswick  family,  by  whom  he  had  a  son,  Albert 
Frederic,  who  succeeded  him  in  the  dutchy  of  Prussia.  The 
race  of  these  new  dukes  of  Prussia  (1568,^  as  well  as  that  of 
Franeonia,  which  should  have  succeeded  them,  appearing  to  be 
nearly  extinct,  Joachim  II.,  Elector  of  Brandeburg,  obtained 
from  the  King  of  Poland  the  investiture  of  Prussia,  in  fief,  con- 
junctly with  the  reigning  u  ikes.  This  investiture,  which  was 
renewed  in  favour  of  several  of  his  successors,  secured  the  suc- 
cession of  that  dutchy  in  the  electoral  family  of  Brandeburg;  to 

23* 


orumt  'm. 


ii  4*«oh«d  on  the  death  of  Albert  Frederic  (1618,)  who 
left  mtwuirn  deeMaduts.  He  wm  suceeeded  W  du  BUcte* 
Jehu  S%iflaHnd,  wlto  had  been  coinveated  with  hktk  in  the 
datel^.  That  prinee .  who  had  married  Aumi  eldeet  dauj^ter 
of  Auert  Frodwict  obtained  likewise,  in  right  of  that  princess, 
part  of  the  succession  of  Juliers,  vis.  the  dutchy  of  Cleves,  the 
counties  of  Maiek  and  Ravensberg,  which  had  been  adjud^ 
to  the  hoase  of  Brandeburg,  by  the  provisional  act  of  partition 
concluded  at  Ssjitern  (1614,)  and  converted  into  a  definitive 
tieahr  at  Cleves.  The  grandson  of  John  Sigismund,  the  Elector 
Frederic  llVllliam,  was  a  prince  of  superior  genius,  and  the  true 
founder  of  die  greatness  of  his  family.  Ulustrious  in  war  as  in 
peace,  and  respected  by  all  Europe,  he  acquired  b^the  treaty  of 
Westphalia,  a  part  of  Pomerania,  ihe  archbishopric  of  Maede- 
burff  nnder  the  title  of  a  dutcfav,  with  the  bishoprics  of  Halber* 
staw,  Minden,  and  Camin,  under  the  titl»  of  principalities.  His 
son  Frederic  was  the  first  King  of  Prussia. 

[The  Teutonic  Knights  had  nearly  lost  Liv<mia  at  the  begin* 
ning  of  the  sixteenth  centuiv;  but  that  province  was  saved  by 
the  courage  and  talents  of  the  Provincial  Master,  Walter  de 
Flattenberg.  The  Grand  Duke  Iwan,  or  John  III.,  having 
threatened  Livonia  with  an  invasion,  jflattenberg  concluded  a 
defensive  alliance  at  Walik  (1601,)  with  Alexan(kr  H.,  Grand 
Duke  of  Lithuania,  and  the  bishops  of  that  country.  After  having 
assembled  troops  to  the  number  of  14,000  men,  he  defeated  the 
Russian  army,  which  was  40,000  strong,  at  Maholm ;  a  second 
victory,  whicn  he  gained  whh  the  same  number  of  troops  over 
100,000  Russians  at  Pleskow  (1503,)  is  one  of  the  most  famous 
exploits  in  the  history  of  the  North.  Next  year  he  concluded  a 
truce  of  six  years  with  the  Livonian  Order,  which  was  afterwards 
renewed  for  fifty  years. 

It  is  commonly  said  that  Walter,  the  Provincial  Master,  taking 
advantage  of  the  distresses  of  the  Teutonic  Knidits,  and  urging 
the  repeated  succours  which  he  had  furnished  uiem  against  the 
P<des,  purchased  from  them  his  own  independence,  and  that  of 
his  Order ;  but  a  recent  author  (Le  Comte  de  Bray)  has  shown, 
that  this  was  not  exactly  the  case.  By  a  first  agreement  signed 
at  Koningsberg  (1520,)  Albert  of  Brandenburg,  who  was  then 
only  Grand  Master  of  the  Teutonic  Order,  confirmed  to  the 
Knights  of  Livonia  the  free  right  of  electing  a  chief  of  their  own 
number,  promising  to  sustain  the  individual  whom  they  should 
nominate.  He  secured  them  the  possession  of  the  whole  sove- 
reignty of  Reval  and  Narva ;  the  countries  of  Altentirken,  Jer- 
wen,  and  Wierland ;  as  also  the  town  and  castle  of  Wesenberg, 
widi  their  dependencies.  This  agreement  was  revived  and 
ratified  by  a  second,  signed  at  Grobin  (1525,)  when  it  was  for- 


miOD  ▼!.    A.  B.  1413—1648. 


in 


fft  Fi«d«no  ima,)  who 

ucMmdod  \tr  Um  EUactnr 
ivflttod  widi  hind  in  the 
id  AuMi  Meat  dau^ter 
in  right  of  that  princess, 
le  dutchy  of  Clevee,  the 
hich  had  been  adjudiped 
rovinonal  act  of  partition 
iverted  into  a  definitive 
n  Sigismund,  the  Elector 
erior  genius,  and  the  true 
Illustrious  in  war  as  in 
I  acquired  by  the  treaty  of 
archbishopric  of  Magde* 
the  bishoprics  of  HalMr< 
titl»  of  principalities.  His 
issia. 

lost  Livonia  at  the  begin- 
lat  province  was  saved  by 
ncial  Master,  Walter  de 
in,  or  John  III.,  having 
,  Plattenberff  concluded  a 
rith  Alexander  II.,  Qrand 
that  country.  After  having 
,000  men,  ne  defeated  the 
tng,  at  Mahohn ;  a  second 
ne  number  of  troops  over 
is  one  of  the  most  famous 
Next  year  he  concluded  a 
rder,  v^hich  was  afterwards 

!  Provincial  Master,  taking 
itonic  Knights,  and  urging 
rumished  Uiem  against  the 
independence,  and  that  of 
Jomte  de  Bray)  has  shown, 
\y  a  first  agreement  signed 
Eindeuburg,  who  was  then 
;  Order,  confirmed  to  the 
tlecting  a  chief  of  their  own 
[ividual  whom  they  should 
session  of  the  whole  sove- 
untries  of  Altentirken,  Jer- 
n  and  castle  of  Wesenberg, 
•cement  was  revived  and 
in  (1626,)  when  it  was  for- 


nuiBjr  BtMidatadr  that  die  lehtions  betwMn  the  Kd^ta  of  U> 
vonia  ana  th«  Ttotonio  Ordmr  ahould  be  nuontUBtd  M  they  wen, 
and  tkkt  A*  LhwwrieM  thonld  eoatinne  to  legnd  tke  Onnd 
Bfaaier  ••  Awir  tme  heed,  and  imder  him  homun  and  obe- 
dience. They  were  faUdden  to  Mlieit  from  the  Bmperor  or 
the  Pope  any  priviWe  inconsistent  with  their  allegiance.  It  ap> 
pean,  eonaequently,  that  Walter  de  Flattenberg  did  not  purchaae 
the  iii^pendence  of  his  Order,  but  that  he  remrded  thoee  ties 
which  existed  between  it  and  the  Teutonic  Order  as  broken, 
when  Albert  of  Brandebur^  was  declared  Duke  of  Prussia.  He 
next  renewed  those  connexions  with  the  Oerman  Empire,  which 
had  existed  since  die  thirteenth  century ;  and  was  declared  by 
Charles  V.  (1627)  a  prince  of  the  Empire,  having  a  vote  and  a 
seat  in  the  Diet. 

It  was  during  the  mastership  of  Plattenberg  that  the  Lutheran 
doctrines  penetrated  into  Livonia,  where  they  made  rapid  pro- 
ffress,  especially  in  the  cities.  Walter  dexterously  turned  die 
disturbances  caused  by  the  opposition  of  the  clergy  to  the  new 
tenets,  into  an  occasion  for  establishing  his  authority  over  all 
Livonia  and  Esthonia,  which  the  Order  had  formerly  shared 
with  the  bishops.  The  citizens  of  Riga  acknowledged  him  as 
their  only  sovereign,  and  expelled  the  archbishop.  The  bur- 
gesses 01  Revel  followed  their  example.  The  clercy  were  so 
mghtened  at  these  movements,  that  the  archbishop  of  Riga,  and 
the  bishops  of  Dorpat,  Oesel,  Courland  and  Revel,  formally  sub- 
mitted to  the  Order.  The  clergy  themselves  soon  after  embraced 
the  reformed  religion.] 

The  dominion  of  the  Knights  Sword-bearers,  had  continued 
in  Livonia  until  the  time  of  the  famous  invasion  of  that  country 
by  the  Czar,  John  Basilovitz  IV.  That  prince,  who  had  laid 
open  the  Caspian  Sea  by  his  conquest  of  the  Tartar  kingdoms  of 
Casan  and  Astrachan,  meditated  also  that  of  Livonia,  to  obtain 
a  communication  with  Europe  by  the  Baltic.  Grotthard  Kettler, 
who  was  then  Grand  Master,  finding  himself  unable  to  cope 
with  an  enemy  so  powerful,  implored  first  the  assistance  of  the 
Oermanic  Body,  of  which  he  was  a  member ;  but  having  got 
nothing  but  vague  promises,  he  next  addressed  himself  to  Sigis- 
mund  Augustus,  King  of  Poland,  and,  in  concen  with  the  arch- 
bishop of  Riga,  he  concluded  with  that  prince  a  treaty  of  sub- 
mission at  Wilna  (1661;)  in  virtue  of  which,  the  whole  of 
Livonia,  with  Esthonia,  Courland  and  Semigallia,  comprising 
not  only  what  was  still  in  the  possession  of  the  Order,  but  dioee 
parts  which  had  b3en  seized  by  the  enemy,  were  ceded  to  the 
crown  of  Poland  and  the  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania,  on  condi- 
tion that  the  use  of  the  Confession  of  Augsburg  should  be  pre- 
served on  the  same  footing  as  it  '^hen  was,  and  that  all  orders  of 


<nunMTn. 


t*: 


the  Slat*  •boaU  be  ouuntaunecl  in  their  goods,  propertieti  rights, 
privilens  and  immunities. 

By  Uiis  same  treaty,  Coorland  and  Semigallia  were  reserved 
to  Ootthard  Kettler,  the  hut  Grand  Master  of  Livonia,  to  be 
enjo]red  by  himself  and  his  heirsnnale,  with  the  title  of  datehy, 
and  as  a  nef  of  the  kinff  and  crown  of  Poland.  The  new  Duke, 
on  taldiw  the  oath  of  ndeli^  to  the  Kinff  of  Poland,  solemnly 
laid  aside  all  the  badges  of  his  former  dignity.  He  married 
Anne,  daughter  to  the  Duke  of  Mecklenraig'Schewerin,  and 
transmitted  the  dutchy  of  Courland  to  his  male-descendants, 
who  did  not  become  extinct  until  the  eighteenth  century.  The 
Order  of  Livonia  was  entirely  suppressed,  as  were  also  the 
archbishoprics  of  Riga,  and  the  bishoprics  under  its  jurisdiction. 

The  revolution  in  Livonia  caused  a  violent  commotion  among 
the  powers  of  the  North,  who  were  all  eager  to  share  in  the 
plunder.  While  the  Orand  Master  of  the  Order  was  in  treaty 
with  Poland,  the  city  of  Revel,  and  the  nobles  of  Esthonia,  left 
without  aid,  and  oppressed  by  the  Russians,  put  themselves  under 
the  protection  of  £ric  XIV.,  King  of  Sweden,  who  obtained 
possession  of  that  province.  The  Isle  of  Oesel,  on  the  contrary, 
and  the  district  of  Wyck  in  Esthonia,  were  sold  to  Frederic  II., 
Kinp  of  Denmark,  by  the  last  bishop  of  the  island,  who  also 
cedea  to  him  the  bishopric  and  district  of  Pilten  in  Courland. 
Poland  at  first  held  the  balance,  and  maintained  Livonia  against 
the  Russians,  by  the  peace  which  she  concluded  with  that  power 
at  Kievorova-Horca  (1582.)  A  struggle  afterwards  ensued  be* 
tween  Poland  and  Sweden  for  the  same  object,  which  was  not 
finally  terminated  until  the  peace  of  Oliva.(1660.) 

Russia,  durine  the  period  of  which  we  now  treat,  assumed 
an  aspect  entirely  new.  She  succeeded  in  throwing  off  the 
yoke  of  the  Moguls,  and  began  to  act  a  conspicuous  part  on  the 
theatre  of  Europe.  The  Horde  of  Kipzach,  called  also  the 
Grand,  or  the  Golden  Horde,  had  been  greatly  exhausted  by  its 
territorial  losses,  and  the  intestine  wars  which  followed ;  while 
the  Grand  Dukes  of  Moscow  gained  powerful  accessions  by  the 
union  of  several  of  these  petty  principalities,  which  had  for  a 
long  time  divided  among  them  the  sovereignty  of  Northern  Rus- 
sia. John  Basilovitz  III.,  who  filled  the  grand  ducal  throne 
about  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  knew  well  how  to  profit 
by  these  circumstances  to  strengthen  his  authority  at  home,  and 
make  it  respected  abroad.  In  course  of  several  expeditions,  he 
subdued  the  poweriul  republic  of  Novogorod,  an  ancient  ally  of 
the  Hanseatic  towns,  and  which  had  for  a  long  time  affected  an 
entire  independence.  He  was  also  the  first  sovereign  of  Russia 
that  dared  to  refuse  a  humiliating  ceremony,  accordmo;  to  which 
the  Grand  Didces  were  obliged  to  walk  on  foot  before  me  envoys 


'  goods,  propertiM,  rig^t*, 

Semigdlia  wvn  nmmA 

Master  of  Livonia,  to  be 

with  the  title  of  datehy, 

Poland.    The  new  Duke, 

of  Poland,  solemnly 

er  dignity.    He  married 

lenboig-Schewerin,  and 

to  his  male-descendants, 

eighteenth  century.    The 

iressed,  as  were  also  the 

irics  under  its  jurisdiction. 

violent  commotion  among 

all  eager  to  share  in  the 

of  the  Order  was  in  treaty 

he  nobles  of  Esthonia,  left 

sians,  put  themselves  under 

of  Sweden,  who  obtained 

e  of  Oesel,  on  the  contraiy, 

,  were  sold  to  Frederic  II., 

>p  of  the  island,  who  also 

net  of  Pilten  in  Courland. 

maintained  Livonia  against 

e  concluded  with  that  power 

gfgle  aflerwards  ensued  be* 

lame  object,  which  was  not 

Oliva.(I660.) 

ich  we  now  treat,  assumed 
leeded  in  throwing  off  the 
:t  a  conspicuous  part  on  the 
f  Kipzach,  called  also  the 
«n  greatly  exhausted  by  its 
'ars  which  followed ;  while 
powerful  accessions  by  the 
icipalities,  which  had  for  a 
vereignty  of  Northern  Rus- 
id  the  grand  ducal  throne 
y,  knew  weQ  how  to  profit 
his  authority  at  home,  and 
i  of  several  expeditions,  he 
tvogorod,  an  ancient  ally  of 
for  a  long  time  affected  an 
he  first  sovereign  of  Russia 
remony,  according  to  which 
Ik  on  foot  before  the  envoys 


mioD  vt.    A.  D.  1453—1648. 


973 


that  came  from  the  Khan  of  Kipnch.  He  even  suppressed  the 
residence  of  Tartar  envoys  at  his  court ;  and  at  length  shook 
off  their  yoke  entirely,  refusing  to  pay  the  tribute  which  the 
Grand  Dukes  had  ow«d  to  the  Khans  for  several  centuries. 
Achmet,  Khan  of  Kipsach,  having  despatched  certain  deputies 
with  an  order,  under  ue  great  seal,  to  denuind  payment  of  this 
tribute,  die  Grand  Duke  trampled  the  order  under  his  feet,  spit 
upon  it,  and  then  put  all  the  deputies  to  death  except  one,  whom 
he  sent  back  to  his  master. 

The  Khan,  with  the  view  of  revendng  that  insult,  invaded 
Russia  several  times,  but  the  Grand  Duke  vigorously  repulsed 
all  his  attacks ;  and  while  he  was  arresting  the  progress  of  his 
arms  on  die  borders  of  the  Ugra,  he  despatched  a  body  of  troops 
to  the  centre  of  the  Grand  Horde,  who  laid  every  thing  desolate 
(1481.)  The  Nogai  Tartars  joined  the  Russians  to  finish  the 
destruction  of  the  Grand  Horde,  whose  different  settlements  on 
the  Wolga  they  laid  completely  in  ruins  ;  so  that  nothing  more 
remained  of  the  powerful  empire  of  Kipzach  than  a  few  de- 
tached hordes,  such  aa  those  of  Casan,  Astracan,  Siberia,  and 
the  Crimea.  Iwan  rendered  himself  formidable  to  the  Tartars ; 
he  subdued  the  Khans  of  Casan,  and  several  times  disposed  of 
their  throne.  The  entire  reduction  of  that  Tartar  state  was  ac- 
complished by  his  grandson,  John  Basilovitz  IV.,  who  twice 
undertook  the  siege  of  Casan,  and  seized  and  made  prisoner 
of  the  last  Khan  (1552.)  The  fall  of  Casan  was  followed  by  diat 
of  Astracan.  But  John  was  bv  no  means  so  fortunate  in  his  en- 
terprises against  Livonia,  which,  as  we  have  already  said,  he  was 
obhged  to  abandon  to  Poland  by  the  peace  of  Kievorova-Horca. 

John  IV.  was  inspired  with  noble  views  of  policy.  Being 
anxious  to  civilize  his  subjects,  he  sent  for  workmen  and  artists 
from  England|L_ He  requested  Charles  V.  to  send  him  men  of 
talents,  well  vS^d  in  the  different  trades  and  manufactures. 
He  introduced  the  art  of  printing  at  Moscow,  and  established 
the  first  permanent  armv  in  the  countiy,  that  of  the  Strditzei, 
which  he  employed  in  keeping  the  nobles  in  check.  The  dis- 
covery of  Siberia  is  one  of  the  events  that  belong  to  his  reign. 
A  certain  chief  of  the  Don  Cossacks,  named  Jermak,  who  em- 
ployed himself  in  robberies  on  the  borders  of  the  Wolga  and  the 
Caspian  Sea,  being  pursued  by  a  detachment  of  Russian  troops, 
retired  to  the  confines  of  Siberia.  He  toon  entered  these  re- 
gions at  the  head  of  seven  thousand  Cossacksrand  having  gained 
several  victories  over  the  Tartars  of  Siberia,  and  their  Khan 
Ktttachem,  he  got  possession  of  the  city  of  Sibir,  v/hich  was  their 
principal  fortress  (1581.)  Jermak,  in  order  to  obtain  his  pardon 
of  the  Caar,  made  him  an  ofler  of  all  he  had  conquered  ;  which 
WM  aiprecd,  to  by  that  Prince,  and  the  troops  of  the  Bussiani 


n 


!l 


if:: 


th«n  took  powwwon  of  Siberia  (1068.)  The  total  tedaction  of 
the  eoantry,  however,  did  not  take  plaee  until  the  reign  of  the 
Cnr  Theodore  or  Fedor  Iwmnoviti,  the  eon  and  nicceieor  of 
John,  who  built  the  city  of  Tobolsk  (1087,)  which  ha«  einee  be- 
come the  capital  of  Siberia. 

Fedor  Iwanoviti,  a  prince  weak  both  in  mind  and  body,  was 
entirely  under  the  counsel*  of  hia  brother-in-law  Boris  Oodunow, 
who,  with  the  riew  of  opening  a  way  for  himself  to  the  throne, 
caused  the  young  Demetrius,  Fedor 's  only  brother,  to  be  assas- 
sinated (1091.)  This  crime  gave  rise  to  a  long  series  of  trou- 
bles, which  ended  in  the  death  of  Fedor  (1596.)  With  him,  as 
he  left  no  children,  the  reigning  family  of  the  ancient  sovereigns 
of  Russia,  the  descendants  of  Ruric,  became  extinct ;  after  having 
occupied  the  throne  for  more  than  eight  hundred  years. 

After  this,  the  Russian  Crown  was  worn  by  persons  of  difle- 
rent  houses.  Their  reigns  were  disturbed  ay  various  preten- 
ders, who  assumed  the  name  of  Demetrius,  and  were  supported 
by  the  Poles.  During  fifteen  years  Russia  presented  a  shock- 
ing spectacle  of  confusion  and  camajp^e.  At  length,  as  a  remedy 
for  these  disasters,  they  thought  of  bestowing  the  crown  on  a 
foreign  prince.  Some  chose  Charles  Philip,  the  brother  of  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden ;  and  others  voted  for  Uladislaus,  the 
son  of  Sigismund  IV.,  King  of  Poland.  These  resolutions  tended 
only  to  increase  the  disorders  of  the  state.  The  Swedes  took  ad- 
vantage of  them  to  seize  Ingria  and  the  city  of  Novogorod ;  while 
the  Poles  took  possession  of  Smolensko  and  its  dependencies. 

The  Russians,  now  seeing  their  monarchy  on  the  edge  of  a 
precipice,  adopted  the  plan  of  electing  a  new  Cmr  of  their  own 
nation.  Their  choice  fell  on  Michael  Fedrovitz,  who  became 
the  founder  of  the  new  dynasty,  that  of  Romanow  (1613,)  under 
whom  Russia  attained  to  the  zenith  of  her  greatness.  That 
prince,  guided  by  the  sage  councils  of  his  father,  Fedor  Roma- 
now, Archbishop  of  Rostow,  soon  rectified  all  the  disorders  of 
the  state ;  he  purchased  peace  of  the  Swedes,  by  surrendering 
to  them  Ingria  and  Russian  Carelia.  The  sacrifices  which  he 
made  to  Poland,  were  not  less  consideraUe.  By  the  truce  of 
Divilina  (1618,)  and  the  peace  of  Wiasma  (1634,)  he  ceded  to 
them  die  vast  territories  of  Smolensko,  Tschemigou,  and  Novo- 
gorod, with  their  dependencies. 

Poland,  at  this  time,  presentrid  a  corrupt  aristocracy,  which 
had  insensibly  degenerated  into  complete  anarchy.  The  nobles 
were  the  only  persons  diat  enjoyed  the.  rigiits  of  citizenship; 
tiiey  alone  were  represented  in  the  Diets,  br  the  noncioa  ov  m- 
putws  which  they  elected  at  the  Dietines ;  toe  honours  and  dig* 
nities  both  in  church  and  state,  and  in  general  all  prerogativet 
vdkatever,  were  reserved  for  them ;  while  the  buigesMi  and 


I.)  The  total  ndnction  of 
»  until  the  reign  of  the 
J  tho  eon  and  sncceiior  of 
|fi87,)  which  hu  ainee  be* 

•th  in  mind  and  body,  was 
[eMn-law  Boris  Gominow, 
for  himself  to  the  throne, 
only  brother,  to  be  assas- 
I  to  a  long  series  of  trou- 
lor  (1698.)    With  him,  as 
rof  the  ancient  sovereigns 
came  extinct ;  after  having 
[ht  hundred  years. 
I  worn  by  persons  of  diffe- 
iturbed  by  various  preten- 
itrius,  and  were  supported 
Russia  presented  a  shock* 
I.     At  length,  as  a  remedy 
wstowing  the  crown  on  a 
Philip,  the  brother  of  Gus- 
voted  for  Uladislaus,  the 
These  resolutions  tended 
ite.     The  Swedes  took  ad- 
city  of  Novogorod;  while 
iko  and  its  dependencies, 
lonarchy  on  the  edge  of  a 
g  a  new  Cs»r  of  their  own 
el  Fedrovitz,  who  became 
»f  Bomanow  (1613,)  under 
I  of  her  greatness.     That 
»f  his  father,  Fedor  Soma* 
ictified  all  the  disorders  of 
I  Swedes,  by  surrendering 
The  sacrifices  which  he 
lerable.     By  the  truce  of 
iasma  (1634,)  he  ceded  to 
,  Tschemigou,  and  Novo* 

orrupt  aristocracy,  which 
ete  anarchy.  The  nobles 
the.  ri^its  of  citixenship ; 
lets,  hr  the  nundoa  or  m* 
es ;  the  honours  and  dig^ 
a  general  all  premgadve* 
whik  the  boifeawsaiid 


ntioD  VL    A.  ■.  144^1648. 


Iftf 


peasantrr  alone  tapperted  the  whole  burden  of  expeoMs.  This 
coMtitatton,  at  the  same  time,  was  under  the  control  of  a  sort  of  de* 
mocracy,  in  a«  far  as  the  noUea,  without  exception,  were  held  to 
be  perfectly  equal  in  their  rights  and  disnities.  Imperfect  as  a 
government  must  have  been,  established  on  such  a  nuiis,  it  still 
continued,  nevertheless,  to  preserve  some  degree  of  vigour ;  and 
Poland  supported,  though  feebly,  the  character  of  beinff  the  ru- 
ling power  of  the  North,  so  long  as  the  House  of  JaffeUon  occu- 
pied the  throne.  Besides  Prussia,  of  which  she  had  disposses- 
sed the  Teutonic  Knights,  she  acquired  Livonia,  and  maintained 
it  in  spite  of  Russia. 

The  reformation  of  religion  was  likewise  promulgated  in  Po- 
land, where  it  was  particularly  patronized  by  Sigismund  II.  A 
great  part  of  the  senate,  and  more  than  half  of  the  nobility 
made,  with  their  Kinjf,  a  profession  of  the  new  opinions ;  and  if 
the  reformation  did  not  take  deeper  root  in  that  kingdom,  or  if  it 
had  not  a  more  conspicuous  influence  on  the  civili/ation  of  the 
people,  it  was  from  the  want  of  a  middle  class  in  the  kingdom, 
by  which  it  could  be  supported. 

The  male  line  of  Jagellon,  having  become  extinct  with  Sigis- 
mund II.  (1672,)  the  throne  became  purely  elective ;  and  it  wns 
ordained  that,  during  the  King's  life,  no  successor  could  be  ap- 
pointed ;  but  that  the  States,  on  his  demise,  should  enjoy  for 
ever  a  perfect  freedom  of  election  on  every  vacancy  of  the  throne. 
Such  was  the  origin  of  the  Diets  of  Election,  which,  from  their 
very  constitution,  could  not  fail  to  be  always  tumultuous  in  their 
proceedings.  The  nobles  in  a  body  appeared  at  these  Diets ; 
thither  they  repaired  in  arms  and  on  horseback,  ranked  accord- 
ing to  the  order  of  the  Palatinates,  in  a  Camp  prepared  for  the 
purpose  near  Warsaw.  The  custom  of  the  Pacta  Conventa, 
took  its  rise  about  the  same  time.  Henry  de  Valois,  who  was 
elected  King  on  the  death  of  Sigismund  II.,  was  the  first  that 
swore  to  these  conventional  ogreements,  [by  which  he  engaged, 
that  no  foreigner  should  be  introduced  either  in  a  civil  or  mili- 
tary department.]  These  Pacta,  which  had  all  the  force  of  a 
fundamental  law,  qiecified  those  conditions  under  which  the 
throne  was  confisrred  on  the  new  monarch.     The  royal  authori- 

Swas  thus  curtailed  more  and  more,  and  the  prerogatives  of 
e  nobility  exalted  in  proportion. 

Poland,  in  consequence,  soon  lost  its  influence ;  the  ^vem- 
ment  was  altered  in  its  (bndamental  jninciples,  and  the  kingdom 
plunged  into  an  tityn  of  calamities.  Among  the  elective  Sings 
who  'soeeeeded  Henrjr  de  Vahris,  the  hnt  that  supported  the  dig* 
vitf  of  the  crown  aninst  Russia,  was  Uladiriaos  iV.,  the  son  of 
flifiiinond  III.,  of  ttie  House  of  Vasa.  In  an  expedition  which 
kt  untorlMk  iolo  Am  interior  of  Bussin  (M18^)  ho  ponotnlsd 


i«umt  VII. 

M  (iur  M  Moceow ;  vad  m  a  Mcond  which  h«  made  (1634,)  ha 
odBspelied  th«  Knniani  to  raiM  tha  imge  of  Smolensko ;  and 
■hut  them  ap  ao  cloMly  in  iheir  camp,  that  they  were  obliged  to 
ciqtituUte  for  want  of  proTisions.  He  then  made  a  new  attack 
on  the  capital  of  R^uaia ;  and  at  the  peace  of  Wiaama,  h-j  ob- 
tained conditiout  most  advantageous  to  Poland. 

In  the  hiatory  of  Hungary,  the  moat  kplendid  era  waa  th^ 
reign  of  Matthias  Corvin,  who,  at  the  age  of  scarcely  sixteen, 
had  been  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  free  choice  of  the  nation 
(1466.)  Like  his  ff^ther  the  valorous  John  Hunniades,  he  was 
the  terror  of  the  T'.uks  during  his  whole  rai^  ;  he  took  Bosnia 
from  them,  and  k<>f>i  Tr-.mylvania,  Wallachia,  Moldavia,  Scla> 
vonia,  and  Servia  in  dependence  on  his  crown,  in  spite  of  the 
incessant  efforts  which  the  Turks  made  to  rescue  these  provinces. 
He  lilu-'xise  conquerad  Moravia,  Silesia,  and  Lusatia ;  he  even 
took  Austria  from  the  Emperor  Frederic  III.,  and  came  to  fix 
hill  residence  at  Vienna  (1486.)  It  was  in  tiiat  city  that  he  ter* 
mintited  his  brilliant  career,  at  the  early  age  of  fort v-seven  (1490.) 
That  great  prince  added  to  his  military  talents,  a  love  for  ele^rant 
literature,  of  which,  from  the  first  revival  of  letters,  he  shov'ed 
himself  a  sealous  protector. 

The  glory  of  Mungary  suffered  an  eclipse  in  the  loss  of  Mat« 
thias.  His  su^'-cessors,  Uladislaus  II.,  the  son  of  Caflimir  IV. 
King  of  PolanJ,  und  Louis  the  son  of  Uladislaus,  who  held  at 
the  same  time  the  crown  of  Bohemia,  were  weak  and  indolent 
princes,  who  saw  Hungary  torn  by  factions,  and  rav  «r;ed  with 
impunity  by  the  Turks.  Soliman  the  Great  taking  advantage 
of  the  youth  of  Louis,  and  the  distressed  state  in  which  Hungary 
was,  conceited  his  plans  for  conquering  the  kiiiftdom.  He  at- 
tacked the  fortress  of  Belgrade  (1681,)  and  made  nimself  master 
of  that  important  place,  before  the  Hungarihos  could  maroh  to 
its  relief.  His  first  success  encouraged  him  to  return  to  the 
charae.  Having  crossed  tlie  Danube  and  th»  Dr&^e  without 
meeting  widi  any  resistance,  he  engaged  the  Hungarians  near 
Mohacz  (1688,)  m  that  famous  batUe  which  cost  them  the  lifn 
of  their  king  and  their  principal  nobility.  Twenty-two  thousand 
Hungarians  were  left  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  the  whole  king- 
dom  lay  at  the  meroy  of  the  conqueror.  Soliman  now  proceedMl 
as  far  as  the  Raab ;  out  instead  of  completing  the  conquest  of 
Hungary  aa  he  miriit  have  done,  be  contented  himself  with  the 
laying  Mraate  all  that  part  of  the  country  with  fin  and  sword ; 
and  carrying  aevaral  himdred  thousand  jprisoners  into  shivery. 

The  prematuie  death  of  the  young  King  who  left  no  progeny, 
occasioned  a  vacaney  in  the  throne  ot  Hungary  and  Bohamia. 
Ferdinand  of  Austria  nho  married  Anne,  sister  to  Louis,  ekdmed 
tfM  roecaasioa  ia  virtue  of  the  difliRent  tnatiM  aigncd  in  tht 


1^' 


'nvi 


rn. 

which  h«  iMde  (1684,)  h« 
•  lioga  of  Bmolensko ;  and 
up,  that  they  were  obligvd  to 
He  then  made  a  new  attack 
le  peace  of  Wiaama.  Uo  oh- 
m  to  Poland. 

most  Hplendid  era  wai  thi 
the  age  of  scarcely  sixteen, 
le  free  choice  of  the  nation 
us  John  Hunniades,  he  was 
whole  reign  ;  he  took  Bosnia 
,  Wallachia,  Moldsyia,  Scla- 
on  his  crown,  in  spite  of  the 
ade  to  rescue  these  provinces, 
ilesia,  and  Lusatia ;  he  even 
'rederic  III.,  and  cume  to  fix 
It  was  in  liiat  city  that  he  ter« 
arly  age  of  forty-seven  ( 1490.) 
tary  talents,  a  love  for  elegant 
revival  of  letters,  he  shoved 

an  eclipse  in  the  loss  of  Mat- 
8  II.,  the  son  of  Casiroir  IV. 
m  of  Uladislaus,  who  held  at 
mia,  were  weak  and  indolent 
y  factions,  and  rav  i^jed  with 
n  the  Great  taking  advantage 
ressed  state  in  which  Hungary 
luering  the  kixigdoin.     He  at- 
SQl,)  and  made  himself  niaster 
lie  Hungarians  could  march  lu 
mraged  him  to  return  to  the 
muhe  and  th^  Dra<«  without 
ingaged  the  Hungarians  near 
atUe  which  cost  them  the  lifn 
lohility.  Twenty-two  thousand 
I  of  hattle,  and  the  whole  king- 
ueror.  Soliman  now  proceeded 
i>f  completing  the  conquest  of 
,  he  contented  himself  with  the 
B  country  with  fire  and  sword ; 
ouaand  prisoiMra  into  slavery. 
ouBg  King  who  left  no jnogeny, 
ine  df  Hungary  and  Bohwnia. 
id  Anae,  sister  to  Louis,  ehinMd 
difliBvent  traatiw  aignod  ia  tbt 


"') 


^. 


> 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
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/>.*^!^ 


^w  M*  ^ 


Photografte 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WRST  MAIN  STREIT 

WfBSTER,N  Y.  WS80 

(716)  •72-4503 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


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Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microreproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  de  microreproductions  historiques 


f 

1 


TBBIOO  TI.     A.  o.  14flB— 1640. 

ywurs  1463, 1468, 1491,  and  1615,  between  the  Aaatriut  F">f"" 
and  the  lut  kings  of  Hungary.  But  thouf^  the  Benemian 
States  wen  disposed  to  listen  to  the  prataaaions  of  Ferdinand, 
it  was  not  so  with  those  of  Hungary,  who  transferred  the  crown 
to  John  de  Zapc^ya,  Count  of  Zips,  and  Faktins  of  Transylvania. 
That  prince  being  hudly  pressed  by  Ferdinand,  at  lengUk  de* 
termined  to  throw  himself  under  the  protection  of  the  Turks. 
Soliman  marched  in  person  to  his  assistance,  and  bud  siege  to 
the  city  of  Vienna  (1529.)  In  this  enterprise,  however,  he  finled, 
after  sacrificing  the  lives  of  nearly  eighty  thousand  men. 

In  1538,  a  treaty  was  agreed  on  between  the  two  competitors, 
in  virtue  of  which  the  whole  kingdom  of  Hungary,  on  the  death 
of  John  Zapolya,  was  to  devolve  on  Ferdinand.  This  treaty 
was  never  carried  into  execution.  John  at  his  death  havii^ 
left  a  son  nam«Hl  John  Sigismund,  then  an  infant  in  his  cradle. 
Bishop  George  Martinuzzi,  prime  minister  of  the  deceased  king, 
prodaimed  the  young  prince,  and  secured  for  him  the  piotM' 
tion  of  the  Turks.  Soliman  undertook  a  new  w^editieQ  ioflo 
Hungary  in  his  favour  (1541 ;)  but  by  a  piece  of  signal  perfidy^ 
he  took  this  occasion  to  seiae  die  city  of  Buda,  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom,  and  several  other  pUu»s ;  and  banished  the  jpriobi 
with  his  modier  the  queen-dowager,  to  Transylvania,  which  he 
gave  up  to  Um,  with  several  other  districts  in  Huirnrr.  The 
city  of  Buda  widi  the  greater  part  of  Hungary  aisd  Sdavonia 
remained  in  the  power  of  the  Turks ;  and  Ferdinand  was  oViagBi 
to  pay  an  annual  tribute  for  the  protection  of  that  kingdom,  tbe 
possession  of  which  was  guaranteed  to  him  by  the  truce  vddeh 
he  concluded  wi^  them  in  1562. 

In  the  midst  of  these  unfortunate  events,  the  Austrian  prineee 
had  again  die  imprudence  to  alienate  the  aflbctions  of  tlw  Hun* 
garians,  by  the  intolerant  spirit  they  displayed,  and  the  effints 
which  diey  incessandymade  to  extirpate  the  Ptotestant  religion 
from  that  kingdom.  The  opinions  of  Luther  and  Calvin  had 
already  been  propagated  in  Hungary  during  the  reicn  of  Louis, 
die  predecessor  of  Ferdinand.  They  had  even  made  great  pro* 
gress ;  especially  in  Transylvania,  where  the  German  language 
and  literature  were  generally  cultivated.  The  oppressions  which 
the  partisans  of  die  new  doctrines  experienced,  added  to  the  a^ 
tempts  which  die  Austrian  princes  made,  from  time  to  time,  to 
subvert  the  ancient  constitution  of  the  kingdom,  excited  fresh 
troubles,  and  favoured  the  designs  of  the  discontented  and  am* 
bitious,  who  were  watching  their  opportunity  to  agitate  tlM 
state,  and  make  encroachments  on  the  government.  Stephen 
Botschkai,  Bethlem  Gabor,  and  Geo^  Ragoczi,  princes  of 
Transylvania,  wjsre  successively  the  chiefs  or  leaders  of  theat 

VOL.  I.  24 


^'l 


il. 


mdaeontents,  in  the  reigns  of  Bodolph  II.,  Ferdinand  11.,  and 
Pevdinand  lU..  Emperors  of  Germany.  According  to  the  Paci* 
fieadon  of  Vienna  (1606.)  and  that  of  Lintz  (1646.)  as  well  as 
by  the  decrees  of  the  Diet  of  Odenburg  (1622,)  and  of  Presburg 
(H47t)  these  princes  were  compelled  to  tolerate  the  public  exer- 
ciae  of  the  retormed  religion ;  and  to  redress  the  political  com- 
phunta  of  the  Hungarian  malecontents. 

The  same  trouwes  on  the  score  of  religion,  which  infested 
Httogary,  extended  likewise  to  Bohemia,  where  the  new  doc- 
trines met  with  a  much  better  reception,  as  they  were  in  unison 
wMl  the  religious  system  of  the  Hussites,  who  had  already  nu- 
merous partisans  in  that  kingdom.  It  was  chiefly  under  the 
reign  of  the  mild  and  tolerant  Maximilian  II.  that  Protestantism 
made  its  way  in  Bohemia.  All  those  who  were  formerly  called 
thrmma^,  from  their  professing  the  Communion  in  both  kinds, 
ioaned  the  followers  either  of  Luther  or  Calvin.  Rodolpfc  II., 
the  son  and  successor  of  Moximilian.was  obliged,  at  the  Diet  of 
I%agae  (1600,)  to  grant  them  the  free  exercise  of  their  worship, 
without  distinction  of  place ;  and  even  to  extend  this  indulgence  to 
die  Rotestants  of  Sitesia  and  Lusatia  by  letters-patent,  known 
W  the  name  of  LeUen  of  Majaty  ;  copies  of  which  were  made 
ai  Prague  on  the  11th  of  July  and  20th  of  August  1609.  These 
letters  were  confirmed  by  King  Matthias,  on  his  accession  to  the 
throne  of  Bohemia ;  as  also  by  Ferdinand  III.,  when  he  was 
at^iKiwledged  by  the  Bohemian  States,  as  the  adopted  son  and 
^accessor  of  Matthias. 

d'Tha  different  interpretations  which  were  put  on  these  letters 
occasioned  the  war,  known  in  history  by  the  name  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War.  The  Emperor  Matthias  happening  to  die  in  the 
midst  of  these  disturbances,  the  Bohemian  States,  regarding 
their  crown  as  elective,  annulled  the  election  of  Ferdinand  II. 
(Ifil9,)  and  conferred  the  crown  on  Frederic,  the  Elector  Pala- 
tine. Being  in  strict  alliance  with  the  States  of  Silesia,  Mora- 
Tia,  and  Lusatia,  they  declared  war  against  Ferdinand,  who  was 
suppwrted,  on  the  other  hand,  by  Spain,  the  Catholic  princes  of 
the  Empire,  and  the  Elector  of  Saxony.  ,  „    ,  ,^    ^, 

.  The  famous  battle  of  Prague  (1620,)  and  the  full  of  the  Elec- 
tor Rilatine,  brought  about  a  revolution  in  Bohemia,  The  ring- 
leaders  of  the  insurrection  were  executed  at  Prague,  and  their 
goods  confiscated.  Ferdinand,  who  treated  that  kingdom  as  a 
conquered  country,  declared  that  the  States  had  forfeited  their 
rights  and  privileges ;  and,  in  the  new  constituiion  which  he 
gave  them,  he  consented  to  restore  these,  only  on  condition  of 
expressly  excepting  the  rights  which  they  had  claimed  in  the 
el«*ion  of  their  kings,  as  well  as  the  Letters  of  Majesty  which 


[I.        r|M«»4 

ph  n.,  Ferdinand  11.,  and 
ly.  According  to  the  Paci- 
of  Lintz  (1646,)  as  well  as 
irg  (1622,)  and  of  Presburg 
i  to  tolerate  the  public  exer- 
to  redress  the  political  corn- 
its. 

of  religion,  which  infested 
emia,  where  the  new  doc-^ 
tion,  as  they  were  in  unison 
ssites,  who  had  already  nu- 
It  was  chiefly  under  the 
nilian  II.  that  Protestantism 
ise  who  were  formerly  called 
B  Communion  in  both  kinds, 
er  or  Calvin.  Kodolph  11., 
i,was  obliged,  at  the  Djet  of 
ee  exercise  of  their  worship, 
n  to  extend  this  indulgence  to 
tia  by  letters-patent,  known 
copies  of  which  were  made 
K)th  of  August  1609.  These 
thias,  on  his  accession  to  the 
irdinand  III.,  when  he  was 
iites,  as  the  adopted  son  and 

ich  were  put  on  these  letters 
try  by  the  name  of  the  Thirty 
thias  happening  to  die  in  the 
Bohemian  States,  regarding 
le  election  of  Ferdinand  IL 
1  Frederic,  the  Elector  Pala- 
the  States  of  Silesia,  Mora- 
'  against  Ferdinand,  who  was 
pain,  the  Catholic  princes  of 
xony. 

20,)  and  the  fnll  of  the  Elec- 
tion in  Bohemia.  The  ring- 
sxecuted  at  Prague,  and  their 
10  treated  that  kingdom  as  a 
the  States  had  forfeited  their 
!  new  constitution  which  he 
'e  these,  only  on  condition  of 
lich  they  had  claimed  in  the 
iie  Letters  of  Majesty  which 


nsioD  vi.    A.  9. 1453—1648. 


999 


Cted  to  the  Protestants  the  free  exercise  of  their  worship, 
this  prince  did  not  stop  with  the  sappression  of  their  reli- 
gious liberties,  he  deprived  them  also  of  their  tightn  of  citixen- 
ship.  Laws  the  most  atrocious  were  published  against  them, 
ana  he  even  went  so  far  as  to  deny  them  the  liberty  of  making 
testaments,  or  contracting  legal  marriages.  AJl  their  ministers, 
without  exception,  were  banished  the  kingdom ;  and  the  most 
iniouitous  means  were  employed  to  bring  hack  the  Protestants 
to  the  pale  of  the  Catholic  Church.  At  length  it  was  enjoined, 
by  an  edict  in  1627,  that  all  Protestants  who  persisted  in  their 
opinions  should  quit  the  kingdom  within  six  months.  Thirty 
thousand  of  the  best  families  in  the  kingdom,  of  whom  a  hun- 
dred and  eighty-five  were  nobility,  abandoned  Bohemia,  trans- 
porting their  talents  and  their  industry  to  the  neighbouring 
States,  such  as  Saxony,  Brandenburg,  l4uasia,  ke. 

Ferdinand  judged  it  for  his  interest  to  detach  the  Elector  of 
Saxony  from  the  alliance  with  Sweden,  which  he  had  joined. 
He  concluded  a  special  peace  with  him  at  Rmffue,  in  virtue  of 
which  he  made  over  to  him  the  two  Lusatias,  wnich  he  had  <ti8- 
membered  from  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia,  to  reimburse  the  Elec- 
tor for  those  sums  which  he  claimed,  as  haTiMff  been  the  ally  of 
Austria  a^nst  the  Elector  Palatine,  then  King  of  Bohemia. 
That  province  was  ceded  to  the  Elector  Jolui  Goorge,  for  him- 
self and  his  successors,  as  a  fief  of  the  Bohemian  crown,  under 
the  express  condition,  that  failing  the  male  line  of  the  Electoral 
branch,  it  should  pass  to  the  female  heirs ;  but  that  it  should 
then  be  at  the  option  of  the  King  of  Bohemia  to  use  the  right  of 
redemption,  by  repaying  to  the  female  heirs  the  sum  for  which 
Lusatia  had  been  mortgaged  to  Saxony.  This  sum  amounted 
to  seventy-two  tons  of  gold,  valued  at  seven  millions  two  hundred 
thousand  florins. 

The  Turkish  empire  received  new  accessions  of  territory,  both 
in  Asia  and  Europe,  under  the  successors  of  Mahomet  IL,  who 
had  fixed  their  capital  at  Constantinople.  The  conquest  of  Bes- 
sarabia belongs  to  the  reign  of  Bajazet  II.,  about  the  year  1484. 
That  prince  had  a  brother  named  Jem  or  Zizim,  who  had  been 
his  competitor  for  the  throne ;  and  having  fled  to  Rome,  he  was 
imprisoned  by  order  of  Pope  Alexander  VI.,  at  the  instance  of 
Bajazet,  who  had  engaged  to  pay  the  Pope  a  large  pension  for 
him.  Charles  VIII.  of  France,  when  he  made  his  expedition 
into  Italy  for  the  conquest  of  Naples,  compelled  the  Pope  to  sur- 
render up  the  unfortunate  Zizim,  whom  he  designed  to  employ 
in  the  expedition  which  he  meditated  against  the  Turks,  but 
which  never  took  piace.  Selim  I.  the  son  -nd  successor  of  Ba- 
jazet, taking  advantage  of  a  revolution  which  happened  in  Persia, 
and  of  the  victory  which  he  gained  near  Taurus  over  the  Schaw 


i»vn.  7 


-:T:r 


UBi. 
Lkiin.  wliam  iM  «Mtod 


OMMMKlnviM.    VlM8eh«iUr«riUeeaUk»wiMrabinitted 

Mlmui  ^  Oll«,'**»  •BBMidrf  U»  mm  fctai.  »»^ 

iikoMl  of  Rholii^^dikh  1w  ttdr  ft«n  «•  KwgMi«C  St.  Jcha, 

iMiriMitaM^^UMdiMlcriliiitniMofhisEtBpm;  S<b1iMm 
MBOMMiBiiiiid  aai  JMb^Anfaia,  whkh  IwppMMd,  accoiteff 

oTSDmitaft  kirandMA  mA,  wtt  ivUch  Iw  ctawd  ttolwfwi- 
•Itesftwftilw  AidiijdN[»f  «^i«ifc^  *».«f^      Spft 

.  ^i^  deelifis  «f  *•  Oiiommi  Bmpiw  tog»  inik  th«  *■•*  of 
SoliiMii  the  Omt  (IfBS.)  The  wdteiiB.  hit  ■■>;'■''"■  «^ 
nadetinft  thwnwlwt  mhwmy  •»»*  e«femii»w,  Mid  •hnt  v(  in 

M^«f  tfaM*  »i3lM^4MHi»4  V  iPo^n  «ttd  •ttnuclB,  «d  se- 

«hid«d  from  rfk  eWl  .ad  mffitwy  «ffMft^  contiwted  from  their 

Miliert  infiuiey  aU  tli»  view  bf  thmr  &th«n,  and  no  lon«r 

brooffht  to  the  Ihwne  tia»  TigoiauB  and  enterpnmng  roint, 

whi^  had  beantha  a««l  of  the  OtMmian  aaiveniinent,  and  the 

bnaia  of  aU  theif  imtitntuna.    Seli«i  It,  the  son  of  Solun«, 

waa  the  fiiat  who  aat  thb  &tal  example  tn  hw  sucoaMOTS.    In 

hia4ine,  the  Tuika  toakAe  Isla  of  Cypn»  f««  ***.X'"?*^ 

(l«Oi)  which  thiqr««»^»M»«l  « JP»  "/  T?^^ifS 
wtfdEthwaawi^il  at  tai^nto  (iMo  ttt«l  which  waaMw^ 

W  die  idtt  al  thair  marine. 

EHD  OF  THE  FIB8T  TOLVHS.  ' 


n. 


tlMinfincM 


«f  DiulNldr 


8yrift,MMlUM,  lad  put  of 
Ataaf,  OMMimV>Alg««i,  and 
JllikmAibm  dynMtv.  CWjo, 

Btilei  tewrporaled  with  the 
if  Macfla  Ittnwin  nibinitted 

idii  U»  tdlkw  Selkn,  niaed 
1  nidiirf  riMTi    Betides  the 

(he  raduead dM^pri^nacMt of 
to  of  Aimmdmm  md  iMdo 
tofhisEmpvK  Hi's  likewise 
ft,  which  kq^MMd,  aceoidiBg 

%  toik  <taio  U»  oaKvioftlko 
>r  AM*.  wlNin  4W  «if«» 
')  lii%>iMS<iifimii|i|>w  »  *Mt 
I  wU«h  ko  dMed  the  Impsri- 
infensd  th«  eMMs  ef  Sy#>. 
la  misGtttied,  however,  in  to 
«ta8WNttdsABC0iuie%tke 
oi  tke^MtitamSieihr*  oMifBd 

mi^bogm  wiih  tho  isatk  of 
le  saltans,  his.i»ta*BiSS».  wr- 
tnd  «ffi»arui»qr«  ond  «but  v]p  in 

0  their  Cinnd  Viiien  the  Mv 

y  wvoMi  and  ettnnehs,  «nd  se- 
y  ifun^  contmcted  from  their 
'  A^  &tlwn,  and  no  longer 
oroas  and  Mit«prising  spirit, 
Ononrnn  voivenunent,  and  the 
klitti  iL,3ls  son  of  Solimw, 
example  to,  his  socoessors.    In 

1  of  Cwwos  from  the  Venettuis 
in  snke  of  the  terriU*  defeat 
{I8n;)  and  which  was  Mowed 


[RST  TOLVME. 


»  . 


M' 


-n 


